tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16341883532914857442024-03-07T08:03:48.544+04:30MASTER IN SOCIAL WORKMSW's Students (2007-2009), Christ College, Bangalore, IndiaMSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.comBlogger47125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-87409843618961891232008-10-02T17:33:00.001+04:302008-10-02T17:36:14.628+04:30THE TRADE UNIONS ACT 1926THE TRADE UNIONS’ ACT, 1926<br />I OBJECT: To provide for the registration of trade unions and to define law relating to<br />registered trade unions.<br />II APPLICABILITY: It extends to the whole of India.<br />III TRADE UNIONS: means any combination whether temporary or permanent formed<br />primarly for the purpose of regulating the relations between workmen and employers for<br />imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, and includes any<br />federation of two or more trade unions.<br />IV MODE OF REGISTRATION: Any seven or more members of a trade union may apply<br />for registration of a trade union in Form - A to the Registrar appointed for the area. The<br />application shall be accompanied by Schedule I, Schedule II and a byelaw and a resolution<br />authorising seven ordinary members of the union to make an application for registration of<br />the union, and a treasury chalan of Rs.100/- remitted as registration fee. (Section 4 and 5<br />read with Regulation: 3 & 5)<br />V REGISTRATION CERTIFICATE: On receipt of the application for registration, the Registrar,<br />after making reasonable enquiry issue a Registration Certificate in Form - B (Section 8 &<br />read with Regulation 6)<br />VI CANCELLATION OF REGISTRATION :<br />A certificate of Registration may be withdrawn or cancelled by the Registrar:<br />1. On an application of a Trade Union in Form-D, or<br />2. If the Registrar is satisfied that the certificate is obtained by fraud of mistake or that the<br />trade union had ceased to exist or willfully and after notice from the Registrar contravent<br />any provisions of the Act or rules etc. (Section 10 read with Regulations 8 to 12)<br />VII APPEAL : Any person aggrieved by any order of the Registrar may apeal within two months<br />to the Civil Court not inferior to the court of an Additional or Assistant Principal Civil Court.<br />(Section 11 read with Regulation 13)<br />VIII CHANGE OF NAME : Any registered trade union may with the consent of not less that<br />2/3 of its total members may make application in Form-H, for the change of its name<br />(Section - 23 read with Regulation - 16)<br />72<br />XI ANNUAL RETURNS: Every trade union shall send annual returns to the Registrar in triplicate<br />on or before the 1st day of May of the year succeeding the calendar year in Form-L in the case<br />of individual trade unions and in Form-LL in the case of federation of trade unions (Section 28<br />read with Regulation 21)<br />XII PENALTIES: Offences punishable for the failure to submit returns may extend to Rs.5/- and in<br />the case of continuing default with an additional fine which may extend to Rs.5/- for each week<br />and shall not exceed Rs.50.00. Any person who wilfully makes, or causes to be made any false<br />entry or any omission from the general statement required by Section 28 etc. shall be punishable<br />which may extend to Rs.500/-. Registered trade unions, furnishing false informations, shall be<br />punishable with fine which may extend to Rs.200/- (Section 31)<br />XIII WHO CAN FILE PROSECUTIONS:<br />1. Registrar<br />2. Persons with the previous sanction of the Registrar.<br />3. Aggreived person under Section 32.<br />The complaint shall be filed within six months of the date on which the offence is alleged to<br />have been committed.<br />No court inferior to that of a Presidency Magistrate or a Magistrate of First Class shall try<br />any offence under the Act.<br />XIV AUTHORITIES UNDER THE ACT:<br />1. Registrar of Trade Unions (under Section - 3)<br />Labour Commissioner<br />2. Additional Registrar of Trade Unions<br />Additional Labour Commissioner (IR & E)<br />3. Deputy Registrar of Trade Unions<br />Joint Labour Commissioner (P)<br />(Regulations wherever specified means The Kerala Trade Unions’ Regulations)<br />73<br />IX AMALGAMATION OF TRADE UNIONS: Any two or more registered trade unions may<br />become amalgamated together as one trade union provided the votes of at least one half of the<br />members of each or every such trade union entitled to vote and at least 60% of the votes re<br />corded are in favour of the proposal. Notice of the amalgamation shall be sent to the Registrar in<br />duplicate in Form-J (Section 24 to 26 read with Regulation 18)<br />X DISSOLUTION: When a registered trade union is dissolved the notice of dissolution shall be<br />sent to the Registrar in Form - K, within 14 days of the dissolution along with the registration<br />certificate (Section 27 read with Regulation 19)MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-44148416313143080332008-10-02T17:30:00.000+04:302008-10-02T17:31:49.407+04:30Factories Act 1948THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948<br />ACT NO. 63 OF 1948 1*<br />[23rd September, 1948.]<br />An Act to consolidate and amend the law regulating labour in<br />factories.<br />WHEREAS it is expedient to consolidate and amend the law<br />regulating labour in factories;<br />It is hereby enacted as follows:-<br />CHAPTER I<br />PRELIMINARY<br />1.<br />Short title, extent and commencement.<br />1. Short title, extent and commencement. (1) This Act may be<br />called the Factories Act, 1948.<br />2*[(2) It extends to the whole of India 3***.]<br />(3) It shall come into force on the 1st day of April, 1949.<br />2.<br />Interpretation.<br />2. Interpretation. In this Act, unless there is anything<br />repugnant in the subject or context,-<br />(a) "adult" means a person who has completed his fifteenth<br />year of age;<br />(b) "adolescent" means a person who has completed his<br />fifteen year of age but has not completed his<br />eighteenth year;<br />4*[(bb) "calendar year" means the period of twelve months<br />beginning with the first day of January in any year;]<br />(c) "child" means a person who has not completed his<br />fifteenth year of age;<br />5*[(ca)] "competent person", in relation to any provision of<br />this Act, means a person or an institution recognised<br />as such by the Chief Inspector for the purposes of<br />carrying out tests, examinations and inspections<br />required to be done in a factory under the provisions<br />of this Act having regard to-<br />(i) the qualifications and experience of the<br />person and facilities available at his disposal;<br />or<br />(ii) the qualifications and experience of the<br />persons employed in such institution and<br />facilities available therein,<br />With regard to the conduct of such tests, examinations and<br />2<br />inspections, and more than one person or institution can be<br />recognised as a competent person in relation to a factory;<br />(cb) "hazardous process" means any process or activity in<br />relation to an industry specified in the First Schedule<br />where, unless special care is taken, raw materials used<br />therein or the intermediate or finished products, byeproducts,<br />wastes or effluents thereof would--<br />(i) cause material impairment to the health<br />of the persons engaged in or connected therewith,<br />or<br />(ii) result in the pollution of the general<br />environment:<br />Provided that the State Government may, by notification<br />in the Official Gazette, amend the First Schedule by way of<br />addition, omission or variation of any industry specified in<br />the said Schedule;]<br />(d) "young person" means a person who is either a child or<br />an adolescent;<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. The Act has been extended to-<br />Dadra and Nagar Haveli by Reg. 6 of 1963, s. 2 and Sch. I.<br />Pondicherry by Reg. 7 of 1963, s. 3 and Sch. I.<br />Goa, Daman and Diu by Reg, 11 of 1963, s. 3 and Sch.<br />Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands by Reg. 8 of 1965,<br />s. 3 and Sch. I.<br />2. Subs. by the A. O. 1950 for the former sub-section.<br />3. The words "except the State of Jammu and Kashmir" omitted by Act<br />51 of 1970, s. 2 and Sch. (w.e.f. 1-9-1971).<br />4. Ins. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 2.<br />5. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 2 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />34<br />(e) "day" means a period of twenty-four hours beginning at<br />midnight;<br />(f) "week" means a period of seven days beginning at<br />midnight on Saturday night or such other night as may<br />be approved in writing for a particular area by the<br />Chief Inspector of Factories;<br />(g) "power" means electrical energy, or any other form of<br />energy which is mechanically transmitted and is not<br />generated by human or animal agency;<br />(h) "prime mover" means any engine, motor or other<br />appliance which generates or otherwise provides power;<br />(i) "transmission machinery" means any shaft, wheel, drum,<br />pulley, system of pulleys, coupling, clutch, driving<br />belt or other appliance or device by which the motion<br />of a prime mover is transmitted to or received by any<br />machinery or appliance;<br />(j) "machinery" includes prime movers, transmission<br />machinery and all other appliances whereby power is<br />generated, transformed, transmitted or applied;<br />(k) "manufacturing process" means any process for-<br />(i) making, altering, repairing, ornamenting,<br />finishing, packing, oiling, washing, cleaning,<br />breaking up, demolishing, or otherwise treating or<br />adapting any article or substance with a view to<br />its use sale, transport, delivery or disposal, or<br />1*[(ii) pumping oil, water, sewage or any<br />3<br />other substance; or]<br />(iii) generating, transforming or<br />transmitting power; or<br />2*[(iv) composing types for printing,<br />printing by letter press, lithography,<br />photogravure or other similar process or book<br />binding;] 3*[or]<br />(v) constructing, reconstructing, repairing,<br />refitting, finishing or breaking up ships or<br />vessels; 3*[or]<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 2, for sub-clause (ii) of clause (k)<br />(w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 2, for former sub-clause.<br />3. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 2 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />35<br />1*[(vi) preserving or storing any article in<br />cold storage;]<br />(l) "worker" means a person 2*[employed, directly or by or<br />through any agency (including a contractor) with or<br />without the knowledge of the principal employer,<br />whether for remuneration or not], in any manufacturing<br />process, or in cleaning any part of the machinery or<br />premises used for a manufacturing process, or in any<br />other kind of work incidental to, or connected with,<br />the manufacturing process, or the subject of the<br />manufacturing process 1*[but does not include any<br />member of the armed forces of the Union];<br />(m) "factory" means any premises including the precincts<br />thereof-<br />(i) whereon ten or more workers are working,<br />or were working on any day of the preceding twelve<br />months, and in any part of which a manufacturing<br />process is being carried on with the aid of power,<br />or is ordinarily so carried on, or<br />(ii) whereon twenty or more workers are<br />working, or were working on any day of the<br />preceding twelve months, and in any part of which<br />a manufacturing process is being carried on<br />without the aid of power, or is ordinarily so<br />carried on,-<br />but does not include a mine subject to the operation of<br />3*[the Mines Act, 1952 (35 of 1952),] or 4*[a mobile<br />unit belonging to the armed forces of the Union, a<br />railway running shed or a hotel, restaurant or eating<br />place].<br />5*[Explanation. 6*[I]--For computing the number of<br />workers for the purposes of this clause all the workers<br />in 6*[different groups and relays] in a day shall be<br />taken into account;]<br />6*[Explanation. II.--For the purposes of this clause,<br />the mere fact that an Electronic Data Processing Unit<br />or a Computer Unit is installed in any premises or part<br />thereof, shall not be construed to make it a factory f<br />no manufacturing process is being carried on in such<br />premises or part thereof;]<br />(n) "occupier" of a factory means the person who has<br />ultimate control over the affairs of the factory 6***.<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 2 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />4<br />2. Subs. by s. 2, ibid., for certain words (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 2, for "the Indian Mines Act, 1923 (4<br />of 1923)".<br />4. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 2, for the words "a railway running<br />shed: (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />5. Ins. by s, 2, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />6. Numbered, subs, ins. and omitted by Act, 20 of 1987, s. 2 (w.e.f.<br />1-12-1987).<br />36<br />1*[Provided that-<br />(i) in the case of a firm or other association of<br />individuals, any one of the individual partners or<br />members thereof shall be deemed to be the occupier;<br />(ii) in the case of a company, any one of the<br />directors shall be deemed to be the occupier;<br />(iii) in the case of a factory owned or controlled<br />by the Central Government or any State Government, or<br />any local authority, the person or persons appointed to<br />manage the affairs of the factory by the Central<br />Government, the State Government or the local<br />authority, as the case may be, shall be deemed to be<br />the occupier:];<br />1*[Provided further that in the case of a ship which is<br />being repaired, or on which maintenance work is being<br />carried out, in a dry dock which is available for<br />hire,-<br />(1) the owner of the dock shall be deemed to be<br />the occupier for the purposes of any matter provided<br />for by or under-<br />(a) section 6, section 7, 1*[section 7A,<br />section 7B] section 11 or section 12;<br />(b) section 17, in so far as it relates to<br />the providing and maintenance of sufficient and<br />suitable lighting in or around the dock;<br />(c) section 18, section 19, section 42,<br />section 46, section 47 or section 49, in relation<br />to the workers employed on such repair or<br />maintenance;<br />(2) the owner of the ship or his agent or master<br />or other officer-in-charge of the ship or any person<br />who contracts with such owner, agent or master or other<br />officer-in-charge to carry out the repair or<br />maintenance work shall be deemed to be the occupier for<br />the purposes of any matter provided for by or under<br />section 13, section 14, section 16 or section 17 (save<br />as otherwise provided in this proviso) or Chapter IV<br />(except section 27) or section 43, section 44 or<br />section 45, Chapter VI, Chapter VII, Chapter VIII or<br />Chapter IX or section 108, section 109 or section 110,<br />in relation to-<br />(a) the workers employed directly by him, or<br />by or through any agency; and<br />(b) the machinery, plant or premises in use<br />for the purpose of carrying out such repair or<br />maintenance work by such owner, agent, master or<br />other officer-in-charge or person;]<br />1* * * * *<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1 Ins. subs, and omitted by Act 20 of 1987, s. 2 (w.e.f. 1-12-87).<br />5<br />37<br />(p) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made by the<br />State Government under this Act;<br />1* * * * *<br />(r) where work of the same kind is carried out by two or<br />more sets of workers working during different periods<br />of the day, each of such sets is called a 2*["group"<br />or<br />"relay"] and each of such periods is called a "shift".<br />3.<br />References to time of day.<br />3. References to time of day. In this Act references to time of<br />day are references to Indian Standard Time, being five and a half<br />hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time:<br />Provided that for any area in which Indian Standard Time is not<br />ordinarily observed the State Government may make rules-<br />(a) specifying the area,<br />(b) defining the local mean time ordinarily observed<br />therein, and<br />(c) permitting such time to be observed in all or any of<br />the factories situated in the area.<br />4.<br />Power to declare different departments to be separate factories or<br />twoor more<br />factories to be a single factory.<br />3*[4. Power to declare different departments to be separate<br />factories or two or more factories to be a single factory. The State<br />Government may, 4*[on its own or] on an application made in this<br />behalf by an occupier, direct, by an order in writing; 4*[and subject<br />to such conditions as it may deem fit] that for all or any of the<br />purposes of this Act different departments or branches of a factory of<br />the occupier specified in the application shall be treated as separate<br />factories or that two or more factories of the occupier specified in<br />the application shall be treated as a single factory:]<br />4*[Provided that no order under this section shall be made by the<br />State Government on its own motion unless on opportunity of being<br />heard is given to the occupier.]<br />5.<br />Power to exempt during public emergency.<br />5. Power to exempt during public emergency. In any case of public<br />emergency the State Government may, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, exempt any factory or class or description of factories from<br />all or any of the provisions of this Act, 5*[except section 67] for<br />such period and subject to such conditions as it may think fit:<br />Provided that no such notification shall be made for a period<br />exceeding three months at a time.<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Clause (q) rep. by the A. O. 1950.<br />2. Subs, by Act 20 of 1987, s. 2 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />6<br />3. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 3.<br />4. Ins. in added by Act 20 of 1987 s. 3 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />5. Ins. by the A. O. 1950.<br />38<br />1*[Explanation.--For the purposes of this section "public<br />emergency" means a grave emergency whereby the security of India or of<br />any part of the territory thereof is threatened, whether by war or<br />external aggression of internal disturbance.]<br />6.<br />Approval, licensing and registration of factories.<br />6. Approval, licensing and registration of factories. (1) The<br />State Government may make rules-<br />2*[(a) requiring, for the purposes of this Act, the<br />submission of plans of any class or description of<br />factories to the Chief Inspector or the State<br />Government;]<br />3*[(aa)] requiring the previous permission in writing of the<br />State Government or the Chief Inspector to be obtained<br />for the site on which the factory is to be situated and<br />for the construction or extension of any factory or<br />class or description of factories;<br />(b) requiring for the purpose of considering application<br />for such permission the submission of plans and<br />specifications;<br />(c) prescribing the nature of such plans and specifications<br />and by whom they shall be certified;<br />(d) requiring the registration and licensing of factories<br />or any class or description of factories, and<br />prescribing the fees payable for such registration and<br />licensing and for the renewal of licences;<br />(e) requiring that no licence shall be granted or renewed<br />unless the notice specified in section 7 has been<br />given.<br />(2) If on an application for permission referred to in 4*[clause<br />(aa)] of sub-section (1) accompanied by the plans and specifications<br />required by the rules made under clause (b) of that sub-section, sent<br />to the State Government or Chief Inspector by registered post, no<br />order is communicated to the applicant within three months from the<br />date on which it is so sent, the permission applied for in the said<br />application shall be deemed to have been granted.<br />(3) Where a State Government or a Chief Inspector refuses to<br />grant permission to the site, construction or extension of a factory<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 3 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 4, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Clause (a) re-lettered as clause (aa) by s. 4, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-<br />10-1976).<br />4. Subs. by s. 4, ibid., "clause (a)" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />39<br />or to the registration and licensing of a factory, the applicant may<br />within thirty days of the date of such refusal appeal to the Central<br />Government if the decision appealed from was of the State Government<br />and to the State Government in any other case.<br />Explanation.--A factory shall not be deemed to be extended within<br />the meaning of this section by reason only of the replacement of any<br />7<br />plant or machinery, or within such limits as may be prescribed, of the<br />addition of any plant or machinery 1*[if such replacement or addition<br />does not reduce the minimum clear space required for safe working<br />around the plant or machinery or adversely affect the environmental<br />conditions from the evolution or emission of steam, heat or dust or<br />fumes injurious to health].<br />7.<br />Notice by occupier.<br />7. Notice by occupier. (1) The occupier shall, at least fifteen<br />days before he begins to occupy or use any premises as a factory, sent<br />to the Chief Inspector a written notice containing-<br />(a) the name and situation of the factory;<br />(b) the name and address of the occupier;<br />2*[(bb) the name and address of the owner of the premises or<br />building (including the precincts thereof) referred to<br />in section 93;]<br />(c) the address to which communications relating to the<br />factory may be sent;<br />(d) the nature of the manufacturing process-<br />(i) carried on in the factory during the last<br />twelve months in the case of factories in<br />existence on the date of the commencement of this<br />Act, and<br />(ii) to be carried on in the factory during<br />the next twelve months in the case of all<br />factories;<br />3*[(e) the total rated horse power installed or to be<br />installed in the factory, which shall not include the<br />rated horse power of any separate stand-by plant;]<br />(f) the name of the manage of the factory of the purposes<br />of this Act;<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 4 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 4<br />3. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 5, for clause (e) (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />40<br />(g) the number of workers likely to be employed in the<br />factory;<br />(h) the average number of workers per day employed during<br />the last twelve months in the case of factory in<br />existence on the date of the commencement of this Act.<br />(i) such other particulars as may be prescribed.<br />(2) In respect of all establishments which come within the scope<br />of the Act for the first time, the occupier shall send a written<br />notice to the Chief Inspector containing the particulars specified in<br />subsection (1) within thirty days, from the date of the commencement<br />of this Act.<br />(3) Before a factory engaged in a manufacturing process which is<br />ordinarily carried on for less than one hundred and eighty working<br />days in the year resumes working, the occupier shall send a written<br />notice to the Chief Inspector containing the particulars specified in<br />sub-section (1) 1*[at least thirty days] before the date of the<br />8<br />commencement of work.<br />(4) Whenever a new manager is appointed, the occupier shall send<br />to the 2*[Inspector a written notice and to the Chief Inspector a Copy<br />thereof] within seven days from the date on which such person takes<br />over charges.<br />(5) During any period for which no person has been designated as<br />manager of a factory or during which the person designated does not<br />manage the factory, any person found acting as manage, or if no such<br />person is found, the occupier himself, shall be deemed to be the<br />manager of the factory for the purposes of this Act.<br />CHAP<br />THE INSPECTING STAFF<br />CHAPTER II<br />THE INSPECTING STAFF<br />7A.<br />General duties of the occupier.<br />3*[7A. General duties of the occupier. (1) Every occupier shall<br />ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and<br />welfare of all workers while they are at work in the factory.<br />(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of subsection<br />(1), the matters to which such duty extends, shall include-<br />(a) the provision and maintenance of plant and systems of<br />work in the factory that are safe and without risks to<br />health;<br />(b) the arrangements in the factory for ensuring safety and<br />absence of risks to health in connection with the use,<br />handling, storage and transport of articles and<br />substances;<br />(c) the provision of such information, instruction,<br />training and supervision as are necessary to ensure the<br />health and safety of all workers at work;<br />(d) the maintenance of all places of work in the factory in<br />a condition that is safe without risks to health and<br />the provision and maintenance of such means of access<br />to, and egress from, such places as are safe and<br />without such risks;<br />(e) the provision, maintenance or monitoring of such<br />working environment in the factory for the workers that<br />is safe, without risks to health and adequate as<br />regards facilities and arrangements for their welfare<br />at work.<br />(3) Except in such cases as may be prescribed, every occupier<br />shall prepare, and, as often as may be appropriate, revise, a written<br />statement of his general policy with respect to the health and safety<br />of the workers at work and the organisation and arrangements for the<br />time being in force for carrying out that policy, and to bring the<br />statement and any revision thereof to the notice of all the workers in<br />such manner as may be prescribed.]<br />7B.<br />General duties of manufactures, etc., as regards articles<br />9<br />andsubstances for use in factories.<br />4*[7B. General duties of manufactures, etc., as regards articles<br />and substances for use in factories. (1) Every person who designs,<br />manufactures, imports or supplies any article for use in any factory<br />shall--<br />(a) ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the<br />article is so designed and constructed as to be safe<br />and without risks to the health of the workers when<br />properly used;<br />(b) carry out or arrange for the carrying out of such tests<br />and examination as may be considered necessary for the<br />effective implementation of the provisions of clause<br />(a);<br />(c) take such steps as may be necessary to ensure that<br />adequate information will be available-<br />(i) in connection with the use of the article in<br />any factory;<br />(ii) about the use for which it is designed and<br />tested; and<br />(iii) about any conditions necessary to ensure<br />that the article, when put to such use, will be safe,<br />and without risks to the health of the workers:<br />Provided that where an article is designed or<br />manufactured outside India, is shall be obligatory on the<br />part of the importer to see-<br />(a) that the article conforms to the same standards if such<br />article is manufactured in India, or<br />(b) if the standards adopted in the country outside for the<br />manufacture of such article is above the standards<br />adopted in India, that the article conforms to such<br />standards.<br />(2) Every person, who undertakes to design or manufacture any<br />article for use in any factory, may carry out or arrange for the<br />carrying out of necessary research with a view of the discovery and,<br />so far as is reasonably practicable, the elimination or minimisation<br />of any risks to the health or safety of the workers to which the<br />design or article may give rise.<br />(3) Nothing contained in sub-section (1) and (2) shall be<br />construed to require a person to repeat the testing, examination or<br />research which has been carried out otherwise than by him or at his<br />instance in so far as it is reasonable for him to rely on the results<br />thereof for the purposes of the said sub-sections.<br />(4) Any duty imposed on any person by sub-section (1) and (20<br />shall extend only to things done in the course of business carried on<br />by him and to matters within his control.<br />(5) Where a person designs, manufactures, imports or supplies an<br />article on the basis of a written undertaking by the user of such<br />article to take the steps specified in such undertaking to ensure, so<br />far as is reasonably practicable, that the article will be safe and<br />without risks to the health of the workers when properly used, the<br />undertaking shall have the effect of relieving the person designing,<br />manufacturing, importing or supplying the article from the duty<br />imposed by clause (a) of sub-section (1) to such extent as is<br />reasonable having regard to the term of the undertaking.<br />(6) For the purposes of this section, and article is not to be<br />regarded as properly used if it is used without regard to any<br />information or advice relating to its use which has been made<br />10<br />available by the person who has designed, manufactured, imported or<br />supplied the article.<br />Explanation.--For the purposes of this section, "article" shall<br />include plant and machinery.<br />8.<br />Inspectors.<br />8. Inspectors. (1) The State Government may, by notification in<br />the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as possess the prescribed<br />qualification to be Inspectors for the purposes of this Act and may<br />assign to them such local limits as it may think fit.<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 40 of 1949, s. 3 and Sch. II for "within thirty<br />days".<br />2. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 4, for "Chief Inspector a written<br />notice".<br />3. Ins. by Art 20 of 1987, s. 4 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />4. Ins. by s. 4 ibid, (w.e.f. 1-06-1988).<br />41<br />(2) The State Government may, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, appoint any person to be a Chief Inspector who shall, in<br />addition to the powers conferred on a Chief Inspector under this Act,<br />exercise the powers of an Inspector throughout the State.<br />1*[(2A) The State Government may, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, appoint as many Addition Chief Inspector, Joint Chief<br />Inspector and Deputy Chief Inspector and as many other officers as it<br />thinks fit to assist the Chief Inspector and to exercise such of the<br />powers of the Chief Inspector as may be specified in such<br />notification.<br />(2B) Every additional Chief Inspector, Joint Chief Inspector,<br />Deputy Chief Inspector and every other officer appointed under<br />subsection (2A) shall, in addition to the powers of a Chief Inspector<br />specified in the notification by which he is appointed, exercise the<br />powers of an Inspector throughout the State.]<br />(3) No person shall be appointed under sub-section (1), subsection<br />(2) 1*[sub-section (2A)] or sub-section (5) or, having been so<br />appointed, shall continue to hold officer, who is or becomes directly<br />or indirectly interested in a factory or in any process or business<br />carried on therein or in any patent or machinery connected therewith.<br />(4) Every District Magistrate shall be an Inspector for his<br />district.<br />(5) The State Government may also, by notification as aforesaid,<br />appoint such public officers as it thinks fit to be additional<br />Inspectors for all or any of the purposes of this Act, within such<br />local limits as it may assign to them respectively.<br />(6) In any area where there are more Inspectors than one the<br />State Government may, by notification as aforesaid, declare the powers<br />which such Inspectors shall respectively exercise and the Inspector<br />to whom the prescribed notices are to be sent.<br />(7) 2*[Every Chief Inspector, Additional Chief Inspector, Joint<br />Chief Inspector, Deputy Chief Inspector, Inspector and every other<br />officer appointed under this section ] shall be deemed to be a public<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 6 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Subs. by s. 6, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />42<br />servant within the meaning of the Indian Penal Code, (45 of 1860) and<br />11<br />shall be officially subordinate to such authority as the State<br />Government may specify in this behalf.<br />9.<br />Powers of Inspectors.<br />9. Powers of Inspectors. Subject to any rules made in this<br />behalf, an Inspector may, within the local limits for which he is<br />appointed,--<br />(a) enter, with such assistants, being persons in the<br />service of the Government, or any local or other public<br />authority, 1*[or with an expert] as he thinks fit, any<br />place which is used, or which he has reason to believe<br />is used, as a factory;<br />1*[(b) make examination of the premises, plant, machinery,<br />article or substance;<br />(c) inquire into any accident or dangerous occurrence,<br />whether resulting in bodily injury, disability or not,<br />and take on the spot or otherwise statements of any<br />person which he may consider necessary for such<br />inquiry;<br />(d) require the production of any prescribed register or<br />any other document relating to the factory;<br />(e) seize, or take copies of, any register, record or other<br />document or any portion thereof, as he may consider<br />necessary in respect of any offence under this Act,<br />which he has reason to believe, has been committed;<br />(f) direct the occupier that any premises or any part<br />thereof, or anything lying therein, shall be left<br />disturbed (whether generally or in particular respects)<br />for so long as is necessary for the purpose of any<br />examination under clause(b);<br />(g) take measurements and photographs and make such<br />recordings as he considers necessary for the purpose of<br />any examination under clause (b), taking with him any<br />necessary instrument or equipment;<br />(h) in case of any article or substance found in any<br />premises, being an article or substance which appears<br />to him as having caused or is likely to cause danger to<br />the health or safety of the workers, direct it to the<br />dismantled or subject it to any process or test (but<br />not so as to damage or destroy it unless the same is,<br />in the circumstances necessary, for carrying out the<br />purposes of this Act), and take possession of any such<br />article or substance or a part thereof, and detain it<br />for so long as is necessary for such examination;<br />(i) exercise such other powers as may be prescribed.]<br />Provided that no person shall be compelled under this section to<br />answer any question or give any evidence tending to incriminate<br />himself.<br />10.<br />Certifying surgeons.<br />10. Certifying surgeons. (1) The State Government may appoint<br />qualified medical practitioners to be certifying surgeons for the<br />purposes of this Act within such local limits or for such factory or<br />12<br />class or description of factories as it may assign to them<br />respectively.<br />(2) A certifying surgeon may, with the approval of the State<br />Government, authorize any qualified medical practitioner to exercise<br />any of his powers under this Act for such period as the certifying<br />surgeon may specify and subject to such conditions as the State<br />Government may think fit to impose, and references in this Act to a<br />certifying surgeon shall be deemed to include references to any<br />qualified medical practitioner when so authorized.<br />(3) No person shall be appointed to be, or authorized to exercise<br />the powers of, a certifying surgeon, or having been so appointed or<br />authorized, continue to exercise such powers, who is or becomes the<br />occupier of a factory or is or becomes directly or indirectly<br />interested therein or in any process or business carried on therein or<br />in<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. and subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 5 (w.e.f. 1-12-87).<br />42A<br />any patent or machinery connected therewith or is otherwise in the<br />employ of the factory:<br />1*[Provided that the State Government may, by order in writing<br />and subject to such conditions as may be specified in the order,<br />exempt any person or class of persons from the provisions of this subsection<br />in respect of any factory or class or description of<br />factories.]<br />(4) The certifying surgeon shall carry out such duties as may be<br />prescribed in connection with-<br />(a) the examination and certification of young person under<br />this Act;<br />(b) the examination of persons engaged in factories in such<br />dangerous occupations or processes as may be<br />prescribed;<br />(c) the exercising of such medical supervision as may be<br />prescribed for any factory or class or description of<br />factories where--<br />(i) cases of illness have occurred which it<br />is reasonable to believe are due to the nature of<br />the manufacturing process carried on, or other<br />conditions of work prevailing, therein;<br />(ii) by reason of any change in the<br />manufacturing process carried on or in the<br />substances used therein or by reason of the<br />adoption of any new manufacturing process or of<br />any new substance for use in a manufacturing<br />process, there is a likelihood of injury to the<br />health of workers employed in that manufacturing<br />process;<br />(iii) young persons are, or are about to be,<br />employed in any work which is likely to cause<br />injury to their health.<br />Explanation.--In this section "qualified medical practitioner"<br />means a person holding a qualification granted by an authority<br />specified in the Schedule to the Indian Medical Degrees Act, 1916 (7<br />of 1916), or in the Schedules to the Indian Medical Council Act, 1933<br />(27 of 1933).<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 7 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />42B<br />13<br />CHAP<br />HEALTH<br />CHAPTER III<br />HEALTH<br />11.<br />Cleanliness.<br />11. Cleanliness. (1) Every factory shall be kept clean and free<br />from effluvia arising from any drain, privy or other nuisance, and in<br />particular-<br />(a) accumulation of dirt and refuse shall be removed daily<br />by sweeping or by any other effective method from the<br />floors and benches of workrooms and from staircases and<br />passages, and disposed of in a suitable manner;<br />(b) the floor of every workroom shall be cleaned at least<br />once in every week by washing, using disinfectant,<br />where necessary, or by some other effective method;<br />(c) where a floor is liable to become wet in the course of<br />any manufacturing process to such extent as is capable<br />of being drained, effective means of drainage shall be<br />provided and maintained;<br />(d) all inside walls and partitions, all ceilings or tops<br />of rooms and all walls, sides and tops of passages and<br />staircases shall-<br />(i) where they are 1*[painted otherwise than<br />with washable water-paint] or varnished, be<br />repainted or revarnished at least once in every<br />period of five years;<br />2*[(ia) where they are painted with washable<br />water paint, be repainted with at least one coat<br />of such paint at least once in every period of<br />three years and washed at least once in every<br />period of six months;]<br />(ii) where they are painted or varnished or<br />where they have smooth impervious surfaces, be<br />cleaned at least once in every period of fourteen<br />months by such method as may be prescribed;<br />(iii) in any other case, be kept whitewashed<br />or colourwashed, and the whitewashing or<br />colourwashing shall be carried out at least once<br />in every period of fourteen months;<br />2*[(dd) all doors and window frames and other wooden or<br />metallic framework and shutters shall be kept painted<br />or varnished and the painting or varnishing shall be<br />carried out at least once in every period of five<br />years;]<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 8, for the word "painted" (w.e.f. 26-<br />10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 8, ibid., (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />42C<br />(e) the dates on which the processes required by clause (d)<br />are carried out shall be entered in the prescribed<br />14<br />register.<br />(2) If, in view of the nature of the operations carried on 1*[in<br />a factory or class or description of factories or any part of a<br />factory or class or description of factories], it is not possible for<br />the occupier to comply with all or any of the provisions of subsection<br />(1), the State Government may be order exempt such factory or<br />class or description of factories 2* [or part] from any of the<br />provisions of that sub-section and specify alternative methods for<br />keeping the factory in a clean state.<br />12.<br />Disposal of wastes and effluents.<br />12. Disposal of wastes and effluents. 3*[(1) Effective<br />arrangements shall be made in every factory for the treatment of<br />wastes and effluents due to the manufacturing process carried on<br />therein, so as to render them innocuous and for their disposal.]<br />(2) The State Government may make rules prescribing the<br />arrangements to be made under sub-section (1) or requiring that the<br />arrangements made in accordance with sub-section 91) shall be approved<br />by such authority as may be prescribed.<br />13.<br />Ventilation and temperature.<br />13. Ventilation and temperature. (1) Effective and suitable<br />provision shall be made in every factory for securing and maintaining<br />in every workroom--<br />(a) adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh air,<br />and<br />(b) such a temperature as will secure to workers therein<br />reasonable conditions of comfort and prevent injury to<br />health;-<br />and in particular,-<br />(i) walls and roofs shall be of such material and so<br />designed that such temperature shall not be exceeded<br />but kept as low as practicable;<br />(ii) where the nature of the work carried on in the factory<br />involves, or is likely to involve, the production of<br />excessively high temperatures, such adequate measures<br />as are practicable shall be taken to protect the<br />workers<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 8, for "in a factory" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 8, ibid., (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Subs. by s. 9, ibid., for sub-section (1) (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />42D<br />therefrom, by separating the process which produces<br />such temperatures from the workroom, by insulating the<br />hot parts or by other effective means.<br />(2) The State Government may prescribe a standard of adequate<br />ventilation and reasonable temperature for any factory or class or<br />description of factories or parts thereof and direct that 1*[proper<br />measuring instruments, at such places and in such position as may be<br />specified, shall be provided and such records, as may be prescribed,<br />shall be maintained.]<br />15<br />1*[(3) If it appears to the Chief Inspector that excessively high<br />temperatures in any factory can be reduced by the adoption of suitable<br />measures, he may, without prejudice to the rules made under subsection<br />(2), serve on the occupier, an order in writing specifying the<br />measures which, in his opinion, should be adopted, and requiring them<br />to be carried out before a specified date.]<br />14.<br />Dust and fume.<br />14. Dust and fume. (1) In every factory in which, by reason of<br />the manufacturing process carried on, there is given off any dust or<br />fume or other<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 6, (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />43<br />impurity of such a nature and to such an extent as is likely to be<br />injurious or offensive to the workers employed therein, or any dust in<br />substantial quantities, effective measures shall be taken to prevent<br />its inhalation and accumulation in any workroom, and if any exhaust<br />appliance is necessary for this purpose, it shall be applied as near<br />as possible to the point of origin of the dust, fume or other<br />impurity, and such point shall be enclosed so far as possible.<br />(2) In any factory no stationary internal combustion engine shall<br />be operated unless the exhaust is conducted into the open air, and no<br />other internal combustion engine shall be operated in any room unless<br />effective measures have been taken to prevent such accumulation of<br />fumes therefrom as are likely to be injurious to workers employed in<br />the room.<br />15.<br />Artificial humidification.<br />15. Artificial humidification. (1) In respect of all factories in<br />which the humidity of the air is artificially increased, the State<br />Government may make rules,-<br />(a) prescribing standards of humidification;<br />(b) regulating the methods used for artificially increasing<br />the humidity of the air;<br />(c) directing prescribed tests for determining the humidity<br />of the air to be correctly carried out and recorded;<br />(d) prescribing methods to be adopted for securing adequate<br />ventilation and cooling of the air in the workrooms.<br />(2) In any factory in which the humidity of the air is<br />artificially increased, the water used for the purpose shall be taken<br />from a public supply, or other source of drinking water, or shall be<br />effectively purified before it is so used.<br />(3) If it appears to an Inspector that the water used in a<br />factory for increasing humidity is required to be effectively purified<br />under sub-section (2) is not effectively purified he may serve on the<br />manager of the factory an order in writing, specifying the measures<br />which in his opinion should be adopted, and requiring them to be<br />carried out before specified date.<br />16.<br />16<br />Overcrowding.<br />16. Overcrowding. (1) No room in any factory shall be overcrowded<br />to an extent injurious to the health of the workers employed therein.<br />(2) Without prejudice to the generality of sub-section (1), there<br />shall be in every workroom of factory in existence on the date of the<br />commencement of this Act at least 1*[9.9 cubic metres]<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 7 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />44<br />and of a factory built after the commencement of this Act at<br />least 1*[14.2 cubic meters] of space for every worker employed<br />therein, and for the purposes of this sub-section no account shall be<br />taken of any space which is more than 1*[4.2 meters] above the level<br />of the floor of the room.<br />(3) If the Chief Inspector by order in writing so requires, there<br />shall be posted in each workroom of a factory a notice specifying the<br />maximum number of workers who may, in compliance with the provisions<br />of this section, be employed in the room.<br />(4) The chief Inspector may by order in writing exempt, subject<br />to such conditions, if any, as he may think fit to impose, any<br />workroom from the provisions of this section, if he is satisfied that<br />compliance therewith in respect of the rooms is unnecessary in the<br />interest of the health of the workers employed therein.<br />17.<br />Lighting.<br />Lighting. (1) In every part of a factory where workers are<br />working or passing there shall be provided and maintained sufficient<br />and suitable lighting, natural or artificial, or both.<br />(2) In every factory all glazed windows and skylights used for<br />the lighting of the workrooms shall be kept clean on both the inner an<br />outer surfaces and, so far as compliance with the provisions of any<br />rules made under sub-section (3) of section 13 will allow, free from<br />obstruction.<br />(3) In every factory effective provision shall, so far as is<br />practicable, be made for the prevention of-<br />(a) glare, either directly from a source of light or by<br />reflection from a smooth or polished surface;<br />(b) the formation of shadows to such an extent as to cause<br />eye-strain or the risk of accident to any worker.<br />(4) The State Government may prescribe standards of sufficient<br />and suitable lighting for factories or for any class of description of<br />factories or for any manufacturing process.<br />18.<br />Drinking water.<br />18. Drinking water. (1) In every factory effective arrangements<br />shall be made to provide and maintain at suitable points conveniently<br />situated for all workers employed therein a sufficient supply of<br />wholesome drinking water.<br />(2) All such points shall be legibly marked "drinking water" in a<br />language understood by majority of the workers employed in the<br />17<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 7 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />45<br />factory, and no such point shall be situated within 1*[six meters of<br />any washing place, urinal, latrine, spittoon, open drain carrying<br />sullage or effluent or any other source of contamination] unless a<br />shorter distance is approved in writing by the Chief Inspector.<br />(3) In every factory wherein more than two hundred and fifty<br />workers are ordinarily employed, provision shall be made for cooling<br />drinking water during hot weather by effective means and for<br />distribution thereof.<br />(4) In respect of all factories or any class or description of<br />factories the State Government may make rules for securing compliance<br />with the provisions of sub-sections (1), (2) and (3) and for the<br />examination by prescribed authorities of the supply and distribution<br />of drinking water in factories.<br />19.<br />Latrines and urinals.<br />19. Latrines and urinals. (1) In every factory--<br />(a) sufficient latrine and urinal accommodation of<br />prescribed types shall be provided conveniently<br />situated and accessible to workers at all times while<br />they at the factory;<br />(b) separate enclosed accommodation shall be provided for<br />male and female workers;<br />(c) such accommodation shall be adequately lighted and<br />ventilated, and no latrine or urinal shall, unless<br />specially exempted in writing by the Chief Inspector,<br />communicate with any workroom except through an<br />intervening open space or ventilated passage;<br />(d) all such accommodation shall be maintained in a clean<br />and sanitary condition at all times;<br />(e) sweepers shall be employed whose primary duty it would<br />be to keep clean latrines, urinals and washing places.<br />(2) In every factory wherein more than two hundred and fifty<br />workers are ordinarily employed-<br />(a) all latrine and urinal accommodation shall be of<br />prescribed sanitary types;<br />(b) the floors and internal walls, up to a height of 2*<br />[ninety continents] of the latrines and urinals and the<br />sanitary blocks shall be laid in glazed tiles or<br />otherwise finished to provided a smooth polished<br />impervious surface;<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 8 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />2. Subs. by s. 9 ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />46<br />(c) without prejudice to the provisions of clauses (d) and<br />(e) of sub-section (1), the floors, portions of the<br />walls and blocks so laid or finished and the sanitary<br />pans of latrines and urinals shall be thoroughly washed<br />and cleaned at least once in every seven days with<br />suitable detergents or disinfectants or with both.<br />18<br />(3) The State Government may prescribe the number of latrines and<br />urinals to be provided in any factory in proportion to the numbers of<br />male and female workers ordinarily employed therein, and provide for<br />such further matters in respect of sanitation in factories, including<br />the obligation of workers in this regard, as it considers necessary in<br />the interest of the health of the workers employed therein.<br />20.<br />Spittoons.<br />20. Spittoons. (1) In every factory there shall be provided a<br />sufficient number of spittoons in convenient places and they shall be<br />maintained in a clean and hygienic condition.<br />(2) The State Government may make rules prescribing the type and<br />the number of spittoons to be provided and their location in any<br />factory and provide for such further matters relating to their<br />maintenance in a clean and hygienic condition.<br />(3) No person shall spit within the premises of a factory except<br />in the spittoons provided for the purposes and a notice containing<br />this provision and the penalty for its violation shall be prominently<br />displayed at suitable places in the premises.<br />(4) Whoever spits in contravention of sub-section (3) shall be<br />punishable with fine not exceeding five rupees.<br />CHAP<br />SAFETY<br />CHAPTER IV<br />SAFETY<br />21.<br />Fencing of machinery.<br />21. Fencing of machinery. (1) In every factory the following,<br />namely,--<br />(i) every moving part of a prime mover and every flywheel<br />connected to a prime mover whether the prime mover or<br />flywheel is in the engine house or not;<br />(ii) the headrace and tailrace of every water-wheel and<br />water turbine;<br />(iii)any part of a stock-bar which projects beyond the head<br />stock of a lathe; and<br />47<br />(iv) unless they are in such position or of such<br />construction as to be safe to every person employed in<br />the factory as they would be if they were securely<br />fenced, the following, namely,--<br />(a) every part of an electric generator, a<br />motor or rotary convertor;<br />(b) every part of transmission machinery; and<br />(c) every dangerous part of any other<br />machinery,<br />19<br />shall be securely fenced by safeguards of substantial construction<br />which 1*[shall be constantly maintained and kept in position] while<br />the parts of machinery they are fencing are in motion or in use:<br />2*[Provided that for the purpose of determining whether any part<br />of machinery is in such position or is of such construction as to be<br />safe as aforesaid, account shall not be taken of any occasion when-<br />(i) it is necessary to make an examination of any part of<br />the machinery aforesaid while it is in motion or, as a<br />result of such examination, to carry out lubrication or<br />other adjusting operation while the machinery is in<br />motion, being an examination or operation which it is<br />necessary to be carried out while that part of the<br />machinery is in motion, or<br />(ii) in the case of any part of a transmission machinery<br />used in such process as may be prescribed (being a<br />process of a continuous nature the carrying on of which<br />shall be, or is likely to be, substantially interfered<br />with by the stoppage of that part of the machinery), it<br />is necessary to make an examination of such part of the<br />machinery while it is in motion or, as a result or such<br />examination, to carry out any mounting or shipping of<br />belts or lubrication or other adjusting operation while<br />the machinery is in motion,<br />and such examination or operation is made or carried out in accordance<br />with the provisions of sub-section (1) of section 22.]<br />(2) The State Government may be rules prescribe such further<br />precautions as it may consider necessary in respect of any particular<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 10 for certain words (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Subs. by s. 10 ibid., for the proviso (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />48<br />machinery or part thereof, or exempt, subject to such condition as may<br />be prescribed, for securing the safety of the workers, any particular<br />machinery or part thereof from the provisions of this section.<br />22.<br />Work on or near machinery in motion.<br />22. Work on or near machinery in motion. (1) 1*[Where in any<br />factory it becomes necessary to examine any part of machinery referred<br />to in section 21, while the machinery is in motion, or, as a result of<br />such examination, to carry out-<br />(a) in a case referred to in clause (i) of the proviso to<br />sub-section (1) of section 21, lubrication or other<br />adjusting operation; or<br />(b) in a case referred to in clause (ii) of the proviso<br />aforesaid, any mounting or shipping of belts or<br />lubrication or other adjusting operation,<br />while the machinery is in motion, such examination or operation shall<br />be made or carried out only by a specially trained adult male worker<br />wearing tight fitting clothing (which shall be supplied by the<br />occupier) whose name has been recorded in the register prescribed in<br />this behalf and who has been furnished with a certificate of his<br />appointment, and while he is so engaged,--<br />(a) such worker shall not handle a belt at a moving pulley<br />unless20<br />(i) the belt is not more than fifteen<br />centimeters in width;<br />(ii) the pulley is normally for the purpose<br />of drive and not merely a fly-wheel or balance<br />wheel (in which case a belt is not permissible);<br />(iii) the belt joint is either laced or flush<br />with the belt;<br />(iv) the belt, including the joint and the<br />pulley rim, are in good repair;<br />(v) there is reasonable clearance between the<br />pulley and any fixed plant or structure;<br />(vi) secure foothold and, where necessary,<br />secure handhold, are provided for the operator;<br />and<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 11, for the opening paragraph and<br />clause (a) (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />49<br />(vii) any ladder in use for carrying out any<br />examination or operation aforesaid is securely<br />fixed or lashed or is firmly held by a second<br />person;]<br />(b) without prejudice to any other provision of this Act<br />relating to the fencing of machinery, every set screw,<br />bolt and key on any revolving shaft, spindle, wheel or<br />pinion, and all spur, worm and other toothed or<br />friction gearing in motion with which such worker would<br />otherwise be liable to come into contact, shall be<br />securely fenced to prevent such contact.<br />1*[(2) No woman or young person shall be allowed to clean,<br />lubricate or adjust any part of a prime mover or of any transmission<br />machinery while the prime mover or transmission machinery is in<br />motion, or to clean, lubricate or adjust any part of any machine if<br />the cleaning, lubrication or adjustment thereof would expose the woman<br />or young person to risk of injury from any moving part either of that<br />machine or of any adjacent machinery.]<br />(3) The State Government may, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, prohibit, in any specified factory or class or description of<br />factories, the cleaning, lubricating or adjusting by any person of<br />specified parts of machinery when those parts are in motion.<br />23.<br />Employment of young persons on dangerous machines.<br />23. Employment of young persons on dangerous machines. (1) No<br />young person [shall be required or allowed to work] 2* at any machine<br />to which this section applies, unless he has been fully instructed as<br />to the dangers arising in connection with the machine and the<br />precautions to be observed and-<br />(a) has received sufficient training in work at the<br />machine, or<br />(b) is under adequate supervision by a person who has a<br />through knowledge and experience of the machine.<br />(2) sub-section (1) shall apply to such machines as may be<br />prescribed by the State Government, being machines which in its<br />opinion are of such a dangerous character that young person ought not<br />to work at them unless the foregoing requirements are complied with.<br />21<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954. s. 6.<br />2. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 10 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />50<br />24.<br />Striking gear and devices for cutting off power.<br />24. Striking gear and devices for cutting off power. (1) In every<br />factory-<br />(a) suitable striking gear or other efficient mechanical<br />appliance shall be provided and maintained and used to<br />move driving belts to and from fast and loose pulleys<br />which form part of the transmission machinery, and such<br />gear or appliances shall be so constructed, placed and<br />maintained as to prevent the belt from creeping back on<br />to the fast pulley;<br />(b) driving belts when not in use shall not be allowed to<br />rest or ride upon shafting in motion.<br />(2) In every factory suitable devices for cutting off power in<br />emergencies from running machinery shall be provided and maintained in<br />every work-room:<br />Provided that in respect of factories in operation before the<br />commencement of this Act, the provisions of this sub-section shall<br />apply only to work-rooms in which electricity is used as power.<br />1*[(3) When a device, which can inadvertently shift from "off" to<br />"on" position, is provided in a factory to cut off power, arrangements<br />shall be provided for locking the device in safe position to prevent<br />accidental starting of the transmission machinery or other machines to<br />which the device is fitted.]<br />25.<br />Self-acting machines.<br />25. Self-acting machines. No traversing part of a self-acting<br />machine in any factory and no material carried thereon shall, if the<br />space over which it runs is a space over which any person is liable to<br />pass, whether in the course of his employment or otherwise, be allowed<br />to run on its outward or inward traverse within a distance of<br />2*[forty-five centimeters] from any fixed structure which is not part<br />of the machine:<br />Provided that the Chief Inspector may permit the continued use of<br />a machine installed before the commencement of this Act which does not<br />comply with the requirements of this section on such conditions for<br />ensuring safety as he may think fit to impose.<br />26.<br />Casing of new machinery.<br />26. Casing of new machinery. (1) In all machinery driven by power<br />and installed in any factory after the commencement of this Act,-<br />(a) every set screw, bolt or key on any revolving shaft,<br />spindle, wheel or pinion shall be so sunk, encased or<br />otherwise effectively guarded as to prevent danger;<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 12 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />22<br />2. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 11 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />50A<br />(b) all spur, worm and other toothed or friction gearing<br />which does not require frequent adjustment while in<br />motion shall be completely encased, unless it is so<br />situated as to be as safe as it would be if it were<br />completely encased.<br />(2) Whoever sells or lets on hire or, as agent of a seller or<br />hirer, causes or procures to be sold or let on hire, for use in a<br />factory any machinery driven by power which does not comply with the<br />provisions of 1*[sub-section (1) or any rules made under sub-section<br />(3)], shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may<br />extend to three months or with fine which may extend to five hundred<br />rupees or with both.<br />2*[(3) The State Government may make rules specifying further<br />safeguards to be provided in respect of any other dangerous part of<br />any particular machine or class or description of machines.]<br />27.<br />Prohibition of employment of women and children near cotton-openers.<br />27. Prohibition of employment of women and children near cottonopeners.<br />No woman or child shall be employed in any part of a factory<br />for pressing cotton in which a cotton-opener is at work:<br />Provided that if the feed-end of a cotton-opener is in a room<br />separated from the delivery end by a partition extending to the roof<br />or to such height as the Inspector may in any particular case specify<br />in writing, women and children may be employed on the side of the<br />partition where the feed-end is situated.<br />28.<br />Hoists and lifts.<br />28. Hoists and lifts. (1) In every factory-<br />(a) every hoist and lift shall be--<br />(i) of good mechanical construction, sound<br />material and adequate strength:<br />(ii) properly maintained, and shall be<br />thoroughly examined by a competent person at least<br />once in every period of six months, and a register<br />shall be kept containing the prescribed<br />particulars of every such examination;<br />(b) every hoistway and liftway shall be sufficiently<br />protected by an enclosure fitted with gates, and the<br />hoist or lift and every such enclosure shall be so<br />constructed as to<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 7, for "sub-section (1)".<br />2. Subs. by s. 7, ibid.<br />50B<br />prevent any person or thing from being trapped between<br />any part of the hoist or lift and any fixed structure<br />or moving part;<br />(c) the maximum safe working load shall be plainly marked<br />on every hoist or lift, and no load greater than such<br />23<br />load shall be carried thereon;<br />(d) the cage of every hoist or lift used for carrying<br />persons shall be fitted with a gate on each side from<br />which access is afforded to a landing;<br />(e) every gate referred to in clause (b) or clause (d)<br />shall be fitted with interlocking or other efficient<br />device to secure<br />51<br />that the gate cannot be opened except when the cage is<br />at the landing and that the cage cannot be moved unless<br />the gate is closed.<br />(2) The following additional requirements shall apply to hoists<br />and lifts used for carrying persons and installed or reconstructed in<br />a factory after the commencement of this Act, namely:-<br />(a) where the cage is supported by rope or chain, there<br />shall be at least two ropes or chains separately<br />connected with the cage and balance weight, and each<br />rope or chain with its attachments shall be capable of<br />carrying the whole weight of the cage together with its<br />maximum load;<br />(b) efficient devices shall be provided and maintained<br />capable of supporting the cage together with its<br />maximum load in the event of breakage of the ropes,<br />chains or attachments;<br />(c) an efficient automatic device shall be provided and<br />maintained to prevent the cage from over-running.<br />(3) The Chief Inspector may permit the continued use of a hoist<br />or lift installed in a factory before the commencement of this Act<br />which does not fully comply with the provisions of sub-section (1)<br />upon such conditions for ensuring safety as he may think fit to<br />impose.<br />(4) The State Government may, if in respect of any class or<br />description of hoist or lift, it is of opinion that it would be<br />unreasonable to enforce any requirement of sub-sections (1) and (2),<br />by order direct that such requirement shall not apply to such class or<br />description of hoist or lift.<br />1*[Explanation.--For the purposes of this section, no lifting<br />machine or appliance shall be deemed to be a hoist or lift unless it<br />has a platform or cage, the direction or movement of which is<br />restricted by a guide or guides.]<br />29.<br />Lifting machines, chains, ropes and lifting tackles.<br />2*[29. Lifting machines, chains, ropes and lifting tackles. (1)<br />In any factory the following provisions shall be complied with in<br />respect of every lifting machine (other than a hoist and lift) and<br />every chain, rope and lifting tackle for the purpose of raising or<br />lowering persons, goods or materials:-<br />(a) all parts, including the working gear, whether fixed or<br />movable, of every lifting machine and every chain, rope<br />or lifting tackle shall be--<br />(i) of good construction, sound material and<br />adequate strength and free from defects;<br />(ii) properly maintained; and<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />24<br />1. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 12 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987)<br />2. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 8.<br />52<br />(iii) thoroughly examined by a competent<br />person at least once in every period of twelve<br />months, or at such intervals as the Chief<br />Inspector may specify in writing; and a register<br />shall be kept containing the prescribed<br />particulars of every such examination;<br />(b) no lifting machine and no chain, rope or lifting tackle<br />shall, except for the purpose of test, be loaded beyond<br />the safe working load which shall be plainly marked<br />thereon together with an identification mark and duly<br />entered in the prescribed register; and where this is<br />not practicable, a table showing the safe working loads<br />of every kind and size of lifting machine or chain,<br />rope or lifting tackle in use shall be displayed in<br />prominent positions on the premises;<br />(c) while any person is employed or working on or near the<br />wheel track of a travelling crane in any place where he<br />would be liable to be struck by the crane, effective<br />measures shall be taken to ensure that the crane does<br />not approach within 1*[six months] of that place.<br />(2) The State Government may make rules in respect of any lifting<br />machine or any chain, rope or lifting tackle used in factories-<br />(a) prescribing further requirements to be complied with in<br />addition to those set out in this section;<br />(b) providing for exemption from compliance with all or any<br />of the requirements of this section, where in its<br />opinion, such compliance is unnecessary or<br />impracticable.<br />(3) For the purposes of this section a lifting machine or a<br />chain, rope or lifting tackle shall be deemed to have been thoroughly<br />examined if a visual examination supplemented, if necessary, by other<br />means and by the dismantling of parts of the gear, has been carried<br />out as carefully as the conditions permit in order to arrive at a<br />reliable conclusion as to the safety of the parts examined.<br />Explanation.--In this section,--<br />(a) "lifting machine" means a crane, crab, which teagle<br />pulley block, gin wheel, transporter or runway;<br />1*[(b) "lifting tackle" means any chain sling, rope sling,<br />hook, shackle, swivel, coupling, socket, clamp, tray or<br />similar appliance, whether fixed or movable, used in<br />connection with the raising or lowering of persons, or<br />loads by use of lifting machines."]<br />30.<br />Revolving machinery.<br />30. Revolving machinery. (1) 2*[In every factory] in which the<br />process of grinding is carried on there shall be permanently affixed<br />to or placed near each<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by At 20 of 1987, s 13 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />2. Subs. by s. 14, ibid (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />53<br />machine in use a notice indicating the maximum safe working peripheral<br />25<br />speed of every grindstone or abrasive wheel, the speed of the shaft or<br />spindle upon which the wheel is mounted, and the diameter of the<br />pulley upon such shaft or spindle necessary to secure such safe<br />working peripheral speed.<br />(2) The speeds indicated in notices under sub-section (1) shall<br />not be exceeded.<br />(3) Effective measures shall be taken in every factory to ensure<br />that the safe working peripheral speed of every revolving vessel,<br />cage, basket, flywheel, pulley, disc or similar appliance driven by<br />power is not exceeded.<br />31<br />Pressure plant.<br />31 Presssure plant. 1*[(1) If in any factory, any plant or<br />machinery or any part thereof is operated at a pressure above<br />atmospheric pressure, effective measures shall be taken to ensure that<br />the safe working pressure of such plant or machinery or part is not<br />exceeded.]<br />(2) The State Government may make rules providing for the<br />examination and testing of any plant or machinery such as is referred<br />to in sub-section (1) and prescribing such other safety measures in<br />relation thereto as may in its opinion be necessary in any factory or<br />class or description of factories.<br />2*[(3) The State Government may, by rules, exempt, subject to<br />such conditions as may be specified therein, any part of any plant or<br />machinery referred to in sub-section (1) from the provisions of this<br />section.]<br />32.<br />Floors, stairs and means of access.<br />32. Floors, stairs and means of access. In every factory--<br />(a) all floors, steps, stairs, passages and gangways shall<br />be of sound construction and properly maintained 3*[and<br />shall be kept free from obstructions and substances<br />likely to cause persons to slip], and where it is<br />necessary to ensure safety, steps, stairs, passages and<br />gangways shall be provided with substantial handrails;<br />(b) there shall, so far as is reasonably practicable, be<br />provided and maintained safe means of access to every<br />place at which any person is at any time required to<br />work;<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 15 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />2. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 13 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Ins. by s. 14, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />54<br />1*[(c) when any person has to work at a height from where<br />he is likely to fall, provision shall be made, so far<br />as is reasonably practicable, by fencing or otherwise,<br />to ensure the safety of the person so working.]<br />33.<br />Pits, sumps, openings in floors, etc.<br />26<br />33. Pits, sumps, openings in floors, etc. (1) In every factory<br />every fixed vessel, sump, tank, pit or opening in the ground or in a<br />floor which, by reason of its depth, situation, construction or<br />contents, is or may be a source of danger, shall be either securely<br />covered or securely fenced.<br />(2) The State Government may, by order in writing, exempt,<br />subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, any factory or class<br />or description of factories in respect of any vessel, sump, tank, pit<br />or opening from compliance with the provisions of this section.<br />34.<br />Excessive weights.<br />34. Excessive weights. (1) No person shall be employed in any<br />factory to lift, carry or move any load so heavy as to be likely to<br />cause him injury.<br />(2) The State Government may make rules prescribing the maximum<br />weights which may be lifted, carried or moved by adult men, adult<br />women, adolescents and children employed in factories or in any class<br />or description of factories or in carrying on any specified process.<br />35.<br />Protection of eyes.<br />35. Protection of eyes. In respect of any such manufacturing<br />process carried on in any factory as may be prescribed, being a<br />process which involves--<br />(a) risk of injury to the eyes from particles or fragments<br />thrown off in the course of the process, or<br />(b) risk to the eyes by reason of exposure to excessive<br />light,<br />the State Government may by rules require that effective screens or<br />suitable goggles shall be provided for the protection of persons<br />employed on, or in the immediate vicinity of, the process.<br />36.<br />Precautions against dangerous fumes, gases, etc.<br />2*[36. Precautions against dangerous fumes, gases, etc. (1) No<br />person shall be required or allowed to enter any chamber, tank, vat,<br />pit, pipe, flue or other confined space in any factory in which any<br />gas, fume, vapour or dust is likely to be present to such an extent as<br />to involve risk to persons being overcome thereby, unless it is<br />provided with a manhole of adequate size or other effective means of<br />egress.<br />(2) No person shall be required or allowed to enter any confined<br />space as is referred to in sub-section (1), until all practicable<br />measures have been taken to remove any gas, fume, vapour or dust,<br />which may be present so as to bring its level within the permissible<br />limits and to prevent any ingress of such gas, fume, vapour or dust<br />and unless-<br />(a) a certificate in writing has been given by a competent<br />person, based on a test carried out by himself that the<br />space is reasonably free from dangerous gas, fume,<br />vapour or dust; or<br />(b) such person is wearing suitable breathing apparatus and<br />27<br />a belt securely attached to a rope the free end of<br />which is held by a person outside the confined space."]<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 16 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />2. Subs. by s. 17, ibid. (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />55<br />36A.<br />Precautions regarding the use of portable electric light.<br />1*[36A. Precautions regarding the use of portable electric light.<br />In any factory--<br />(a) no portable electric light or any other electric<br />appliance of voltage exceeding twenty-four volts shall<br />be permitted for use inside any chamber, tank, vat,<br />pit, pipe, flue or other confined space; 2*[ unless<br />adequate safety devices are provided] and<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976 s. 16, (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 18 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />56<br />(b) if any inflammable gas, fume or dust is likely to be<br />present in such chamber, tank, vat, pit, pipe, flue or<br />other confined space, no lamp or light other than that<br />of flame-proof construction shall be permitted to be<br />used therein.]<br />37.<br />Explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc.<br />37. Explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc. (1) Where in any<br />factory any manufacturing process produces dust, gas, fume or vapour<br />of such character and to such extent as to be likely to explode on<br />ignition, all practicable measures shall be taken to prevent any such<br />explosion by--<br />(a) effective enclosure of the plant or machinery used in<br />the process;<br />(b) removal or prevention of the accumulation of such dust,<br />gas, fume or vapour;<br />(c) exclusion or effective enclosure of all possible<br />sources of ignition.<br />(2) Where in any factory the plant or machinery used in a process<br />such as is referred to in sub-section (1) is not so constructed as to<br />withstand the probable pressure which such an explosion as aforesaid<br />would produce, all practicable measures shall be taken to restrict the<br />spread and effects of the explosion by the provision in the plant or<br />machinery of chokes, baffles, vents or other effective appliances.<br />(3) Where any part of the plant or machinery in a factory<br />contains any explosive or inflammable gas or vapour under pressure<br />greater than atmospheric pressure, that part shall not be opened<br />except in accordance with the following provisions, namely:--<br />(a) before the fastening of any joint of any pipe connected<br />with the part or the fastening of the cover of any<br />opening into the part is the cover of any opening into<br />the part is loosened, any flow of the gas or vapour<br />into the part of any such pipe shall be effectively<br />28<br />stopped by a stop-valve or other means;<br />(b) before any such fastening as aforesaid is removed, all<br />practicable measures shall be taken to reduce the<br />pressure of the gas or vapour in the part of pipe to<br />atmospheric pressure;<br />(c) where any such fastening as aforesaid has been loosened<br />or removed effective measures shall be taken to prevent<br />any explosive or inflammable gas or vapour from<br />entering the part or pipe until the fastening has been<br />secured, or, as the case may be, securely replaced:<br />57<br />Provided that the provisions of this sub-section shall not apply<br />in the case of plant or machinery installed in the open air.<br />(4) No plant, tank or vessel which contains or has contained any<br />explosive or inflammable substance shall be subjected in any factory<br />to any welding, brazing, soldering or cutting operation which involves<br />the application of heat unless adequate measures have first been taken<br />to remove such substance and any fumes arising therefrom or to render<br />such substance and fumes non-explosive or non-inflammable, and no such<br />substance shall be allowed to enter such plant, tank or vessel after<br />any such operation until the metal has cooled sufficiently to prevent<br />any risk of igniting the substance.<br />(5) The State Government may by rules exempt, subject to such<br />conditions as may be prescribed, any factory or class or description<br />of factories from compliance with all or any of the provisions of this<br />section.<br />38.<br />Prescautions in case of fire.<br />1*[38. Precautions in case of fire. (1) In every factory, all<br />practicable measures shall be taken to prevent outbreak of fire and<br />its spread, both internally and externally, and to provide and<br />maintain--<br />(a) safe means of escape for all persons in the event of a<br />fire, and<br />(b) the necessary equipment and facilities for<br />extinguishing fire.<br />(2) Effective measures shall be taken to ensure that in every<br />factory all the workers are familiar with the means of escape in case<br />of fire and have been adequately trained in the routine to be followed<br />in such cases.<br />(3) The State Government may make rules, in respect of any<br />factory or class or description of factories, requiring the measures<br />to be adopted to give effect to the provisions of sub-sections (1) and<br />(2).<br />(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in clause (a) of subsection<br />(1) or sub-section (2), if the Chief Inspector, having regard<br />to the nature of the work carried on in any factory, the construction<br />of such factory, special risk to life or safety, or any other<br />circumstances, is of the opinion that the measures provided in the<br />factory, whether as prescribed or not, for the purposes of clause (a)<br />of sub-section (1) or sub-section (2), are inadequate, he may, by<br />order in writing, require that such additional measures as he may<br />consider reasonable and necessary, be provided in the factory before<br />such date as it specified in the order.]<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 19 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />29<br />59<br />39.<br />Power to require specifications of defective parts or tests<br />ofstability.<br />39. Power to require specifications of defective parts or tests<br />of stability. If it appears to the Inspector that any building or part<br />of a building or any part of the ways, machinery or plant in a factory<br />is in such a condition that it may be dangerous to human life or<br />safety, he may serve on 1*[the occupier or manager or both] of the<br />factory an order in writing requiring him before a specified date--<br />(a) to furnish such drawings, specifications and other<br />particulars as may be necessary to determine whether<br />such building, ways, machinery or plant can be used<br />with safety, or<br />(b) to carry out such tests in such manner as may be<br />specified in the order, and to inform the Inspector of<br />the results thereof.<br />40.<br />Safety of buildings and machinery.<br />40. Safety of buildings and machinery. (1) If it appears to the<br />Inspector that any building or part of a building or any part of the<br />ways, machinery or plant in a factory is in such a condition that it<br />is dangerous to human life or safety, he may serve on 1*[the occupier<br />or manager or both] of the factory an order in writing specifying the<br />measures which in his opinion should be adopted, and requiring them to<br />be carried out before a specified date.<br />(2) If it appears to the Inspector that the use of any building<br />or part of a building or any part of the ways, machinery or plant in a<br />factory involves imminent danger to human life or safety, he may serve<br />on 1*[the occupier or manager or both] of the factory an order in<br />writing prohibiting its use until it has been properly repaired or<br />altered.<br />40A.<br />Maintenance of buildings.<br />2*[40A. Maintenance of buildings. If it appears to the Inspector<br />that any building or part of a building in a factory is in such a<br />state of disrepair as is likely to lead to conditions detrimental to<br />the health and welfare of the workers, he may serve on the occupier or<br />manager or both of the factory an order in writing specifying the<br />measures which in his opinion should be taken and requiring the same<br />to be carried out before such date as is specified in the order.<br />40B.<br />Safety Officers.<br />40B. Safety Officers. (1) In every factory,--<br />(i) wherein one thousand or more workers are ordinarily<br />employed, or<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 18, for "the manager" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />30<br />2. Ins. by s. 19, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />60<br />(ii) wherein, in the opinion of the State Government, any<br />manufacturing process or operation is carried on, which<br />process or operation involves any risk of bodily<br />injury, poisoning or disease, or any other hazard to<br />health, to the persons employed in the factory,<br />the occupier shall, if so required by the State Government by<br />notification in the Official Gazette, employ such number of Safety<br />Officers as may be specified in that notification.<br />(2) The duties, qualifications and conditions of service of<br />Safety Officers shall be such as may be prescribed by the State<br />Government.]<br />41.<br />Power to make rules to supplement this Chapter<br />41. Power to make rules to supplement this Chapter. The State<br />Government may make rules requiring the provision in any factory or in<br />any class or description of factories of such further 1*[devices and<br />measures] for securing the safety of persons employed therein as it<br />may deem necessary.<br />CHAP<br />PROVISIONS RELATING TO HAZARDOUS PROCESSES<br />2*[CHAPTER IV A<br />PROVISIONS RELATING TO HAZARDOUS PROCESSES<br />41A.<br />Constitution of Site Appraisal Committees.<br />41A. Constitution of Site Appraisal Committees. (1) The State<br />Government may, for purposes of advising it to consider applications<br />for grant of permission for the initial location of a factory<br />involving a hazardous process or for the expansion of any such<br />factory, appoint a Site Appraisal Committee consisting of--<br />(a) the Chief Inspector of the State who shall be its<br />Chairman;<br />(b) a representative of the Central Board for the<br />Prevention and Control of Water Pollution appointed by<br />the Central Government under section 3 of the Water<br />(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of<br />1974);<br />(c) a representative of the Central Board for the<br />Prevention and Control of Air Pollution referred to in<br />section 3 of the Air (Prevention and Control of<br />Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981);<br />(d) a representative of the State Board appointed under<br />section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of<br />Pollution) Act, 1974; (6 of 1974).<br />(e) a representative of the State Board for the Prevention<br />and Control of Air Pollution referred to in section 5<br />of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,<br />31<br />1981 (14 of 1981);<br />(f) a representative of the Department of Environment in<br />the State;<br />(g) a representative of the Meteorological Department of<br />the Government of India;<br />(h) an expert in the field of occupational health; and<br />(i) a representative of the Town Planning Department of the<br />State Government,<br />and not more than five other members who may be co-opted by the State<br />Government who shall be--<br />(i) a scientist having specialised knowledge of the<br />hazardous process which will be involved in the<br />factory,<br />(ii) a representative of the local authority within whose<br />jurisdiction the factory is to be established, and<br />(iii)not more than three other persons as deemed fit by the<br />State Government.<br />(2) The Site Appraisal Committee shall examine an application for<br />the establishment of a factory involving hazardous process and make<br />its recommendation to the State Government within a period of ninety<br />days of the receipt of such applications in the prescribed form.<br />(3) Where any process relates to a factory owned or controlled by<br />the Central Government or to a corporation or a company owned or<br />controlled by the Central Government, the State Government shall coopt<br />in the Site Appraisal Committee a representative nominated by the<br />Central Government as a member of that Committee.<br />(4) The Site Appraisal Committee shall have power to call for any<br />information from the person making an application for the<br />establishment or expansion of a factory involving a hazardous process.<br />(5) Where the State Government has granted approval to an<br />application for the establishment or expansion of a factory involving<br />a hazardous process, it shall not be necessary for an applicant to<br />obtain a further approval from the Central Board or the State Board<br />established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,<br />1974 (6 of 1974) and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) A<br />Act 1981 (14 of 1981).<br />41B.<br />Compulsory disclosure of information by the occupier.<br />41B. Compulsory disclosure of information by the occupier. (1)<br />The occupier of every factory involving a hazardous process shall<br />disclose in the manner prescribed all information regarding dangers,<br />including health hazards and the measures to overcome such hazards<br />arising from the exposure to or handling of the materials or<br />substances in the manufacture, transportation, storage and other<br />processes, to the workers employed in the factory, the Chief<br />Inspector, the local authority within whose jurisdiction the factory<br />is situate and the general public in the vicinity.<br />(2) The occupier shall, at the time of registering the factory<br />involving a hazardous process lay down a detailed policy with respect<br />to the health and safety of the workers employed therein and intimate<br />such policy to the Chief Inspector and the local authority and,<br />thereafter, at such intervals as may be prescribed, inform the Chief<br />Inspector and the local authority of any change made in the said<br />policy.<br />32<br />(3) The information furnished under sub-section (1) shall include<br />accurate information as to the quantity, specifications and other<br />characteristics of wastes and the manner of their disposal.<br />(4) Every occupier shall, with the approval of the Chief<br />Inspector, draw up an on-site emergency plan and detailed disaster<br />control measures for his factory and make known to the workers<br />employed therein and to the general public living in the vicinity of<br />the factory the safety measures required to be taken in the event of<br />an accident taking place.<br />(5) Every occupier of a factory shall,--<br />(a) if such factory engaged in a hazardous process on the<br />commencement of the Factories (Amendment) Act, 1987,<br />within a period of thirty days of such commencement;<br />and<br />(b) if such factory proposes to engage in a hazardous<br />process at any time after such commencement, within a<br />period of thirty days before the commencement of such<br />process,<br />inform the Chief Inspector of the nature and details of the process in<br />such form and in such manner as may be prescribed.<br />(6) Where any occupier of a factory contravenes the provisions of<br />sub-section (5), the licence issued under section 6 to such factory<br />shall, notwithstanding any penalty to which the occupier or factory<br />shall be subjected to under the provisions of this Act, be liable for<br />cancellation.<br />(7) The occupier of a factory involving a hazardous process<br />shall, with the previous approval of the Chief Inspector, lay down<br />measures for the handling, usage, transportation and storage of<br />hazardous substances inside the factory premises and publicise them in<br />the manner prescribed among the workers and the general public living<br />in the vicinity.<br />41C.<br />Specifice responsibility of the occupier in relation to<br />hazardoueprocesses.<br />41C. Specifice responsibility of the occupier in relation to<br />hazardoue processes. Every occupier of a factory involving any<br />hazardous process shall--<br />(a) maintain accurate and up-to-date health records or, as<br />the case may be, medical records, of the workers in the<br />factory who are exposed to any chemical, toxic or any<br />other harmful substances which are manufactured,<br />stored, handled or transported and such records shall<br />be accessible to the workers subject to such conditions<br />as may be prescribed;<br />(b) appoint persons who possess qualifications and<br />experience in handling hazardous substances and are<br />competent to supervise such handling within the factory<br />and to provide at the working place all the necessary<br />facilities for protecting the workers in the manner<br />prescribed:<br />Provided that where any question arises as to the<br />qualifications and experience of a person so appointed,<br />the decision of the Chief Inspector shall be final;<br />(c) provide for medical examination of every worker--<br />(a) before such worker is assigned to a job involving<br />the handling of, or working with, a hazardous<br />33<br />substance, and<br />(b) while continuing in such job, and after he has<br />ceased to work in such job, at intervals not<br />exceeding twelve months, in such manner as may be<br />prescribed.<br />41D.<br />Power of Central Government to appoint Inquiry Committee.<br />41D. Power of Central Government to appoint Inquiry Committee.<br />(1) The Central Government may, in the event of the occurrence of an<br />extraordinary situation involving a factory engaged in a hazardous<br />process, appoint an Inquiry Committee to inquire into the standards of<br />health and safety observed in the factory with a view to finding out<br />the causes of any failure or neglect in the adoption of any measures<br />or standards prescribed for the health and safety of the workers<br />employed in the factory or the general public affected or likely to be<br />affected, due to such failure or neglect and for the prevention and<br />recurrence of such extraordinary situations in future in such factory<br />or elsewhere.<br />(2) The Committee appointed under sub-section (1) shall consist<br />of a Chairman and two other members and the terms of reference of the<br />Committee and the tenure of office of its member shall be such as may<br />be determined by the Central Government according to the requirements<br />of the situation.<br />(3) The recommendations of the Committee shall be advisory in<br />nature.<br />41E.<br />Emergency standards.<br />41E. Emergency standards. (1) Where the Central Government is<br />satisfied that no standards of safety have been prescribed in respect<br />of a hazardous process or class of hazardous processes, or where the<br />standards so prescribed are inadequate, it may direct the Director-<br />General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes or any<br />institution specialised in matters relating to standards of safety in<br />hazardous processes, to lay down emergency standards for enforcement<br />of suitable standards in respect of such hazardous processes.<br />(2) The emergency standards laid down under sub-section shall,<br />until they are incorporated in the rules made under this be<br />enforceable and have the same effect as if they had been incorporated<br />in the rules made under this Act.<br />41F.<br />Permissible limits of exposure of chemical and toxic sub-stances.<br />3*[41F. Permissible limits of exposure of chemical and toxic substances.<br />(1) The maximum permissible threshold limits of exposure of<br />chemical and toxic substances in manufacturing processes (whether<br />hazardous or otherwise) in any factory shall be of the value indicated<br />in the Second Schedule.<br />(2) The Central Government may, at any time, for the purpose of<br />giving effect to any scientific proof obtained from specialised<br />institutions or experts in the field, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, make suitable changes in the said Schedule.]<br />41G.<br />34<br />Workers' participation in safety management.<br />41G. Workers' participation in safety management. (1) The<br />occupier shall, in every factory where a hazardous process takes<br />place, or where hazardous substances are used or handled, set up a<br />Safety Committee consisting of equal number of representatives of<br />workers and management to promote cooperation between the workers and<br />the management in maintaining proper safety and health at work and to<br />review periodically the measures taken in that behalf:<br />Provided that the State Government may, by order in writing and<br />for reasons to be recorded, exempt the occupier of any factory or<br />class of factories from setting up such Committee.<br />(2) The composition of the Safety Committee, the tenure of office<br />of its members and their rights and duties shall be such as may be<br />prescribed.<br />41H.<br />Right of workers to warn about imminent danger.<br />41H. Right of workers to warn about imminent danger. (1) Where<br />the workers employed in any factory engaged in a hazardous process<br />have reasonable apprehension that there is a likelihood of imminent<br />danger to their lives or health due to any accident, they may bring<br />the same to the notice of the occupier, agent, manager or any other<br />person who is incharge of the factory or the process concerned<br />directly or through their representatives in the Safety Committee and<br />simultaneously bring the same to the notice of the Inspector.<br />(2) It shall be the duty of such occupier, agent, manager or the<br />person incharge of the factory or process to take immediate remedial<br />action if he is satisfied about the existence of such imminent danger<br />and send a report forthwith of the action taken to the nearest<br />Inspector.<br />(3) If the occupier, agent, manager or the person incharge<br />referred to in sub-section (2) is not satisfied about the existence of<br />any imminent danger as apprehended by the workers, he shall,<br />nevertheless, refer the matter forthwith to the nearest Inspector<br />whose decision on the question of the existence of such imminent<br />danger shall be final."]<br />CHAP<br />WELFARE<br />CHAPTER V<br />WELFARE<br />42.<br />Washing facilities.<br />42. Washing facilities. (1) In every factory--<br />(a) adequate and suitable facilities for washing shall be<br />provided and maintained for the use of the workers<br />therein;<br />(b) separate and adequately screened facilities shall be<br />provided for the use of male and female workers;<br />35<br />(c) such facilities shall be conveniently accessible and<br />shall be kept clean.<br />(2) The State Government may, in respect of any factory or class<br />or description of factories or of any manufacturing process, prescribe<br />standards of adequate and suitable facilities for washing.<br />43.<br />Facilities for storing and drying clothing.<br />43. Facilities for storing and drying clothing. The State<br />Government may, in respect of any factory or class or description of<br />factories, make rules requiring the provision therein of suitable<br />places for keeping clothing not worn during working hours and for the<br />drying of wet clothing.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 20, for the word "devices" (w.e.f.<br />26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 20 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />3. Ins by s. 20, (w.e.f. 1-6-1988).<br />60A<br />44.<br />Facilities for sitting.<br />44. Facilities for sitting. (1) In every factory suitable<br />arrangements for sitting shall be provided and maintained for all<br />workers obliged to work in a standing position, in order that they may<br />take advantage of any opportunities for rest which may occur in the<br />course of their work.<br />(2) If, in, the opinion of the Chief Inspector, the workers in<br />any factory engaged in a particular manufacturing process or working<br />in a particular room are able to do their work efficiently in a<br />sitting position, he may, by order in writing, require the occupier of<br />the factory to provide before a specified date such seating<br />arrangements as may be practicable for all workers so engaged or<br />working.<br />(3) The State Government may, by notification in the Official<br />Gazette, declare that the provisions of sub-section (1) shall not<br />apply to any specified factory or class or description of factories or<br />to any specified manufacturing process.<br />45.<br />First-aid appliances.<br />45. First-aid appliances. (1) There shall in every factory be<br />provided and maintained so as to be readily accessible during all<br />working hours first-aid boxes or cupboards equipped with the<br />prescribed contents, and the number of such boxes or cupboards to be<br />provided and maintained shall not be less than one for every one<br />hundred and fifty workers ordinarily employed 1*[at any one time] in<br />the factory.<br />2*[(2) Nothing except the prescribed contents shall be kept in a<br />first-aid box or cupboard.<br />(3) Each first-aid box or cupboard shall be kept in the charge of<br />a separate responsible person 3*[who holds a certificate in first-aid<br />treatment recognised by the State Government] and who shall always be<br />readily available during the working hours of the factory.]<br />36<br />4*[(4)] In every factory wherein more than five hundred workers<br />are 5*[ordinarily employed] there shall be provided and maintained an<br />ambulance room of the prescribed size, containing the prescribed<br />equipment and in the charge of such medical and nursing staff as may<br />be prescribed 6*[and those facilities shall always be made readily<br />available during the working hours of the factory].<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 9.<br />2. Subs. by s. 9, ibid., for original sub-section (2).<br />3. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 21, for certain words (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />4. Sub-section (3) renumbered as sub-section (4) by Act 25 of 1954,<br />s. 9.<br />5. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 21, for "employed" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />6. Ins. by s. 21, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />60B<br />46.<br />Canteens.<br />46. Canteens. (1) The State Government may make rules requiring<br />that in any specified factory wherein more than two hundred and fifty<br />workers are ordinarily employed, a canteen or canteens shall be<br />provided and maintained by the occupier for the use of the workers.<br />(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power,<br />such rules may provide for--<br />(a) the date by which such canteen shall be provided;<br />(b) the standards in respect of construction,<br />accommodation, furniture and other equipment of the<br />canteen;<br />(c) the foodstuffs to be served therein and the charges<br />which may be made therefor;<br />(d) the constitution of a managing committee for the<br />canteen and representation of the workers in the<br />management of the canteen;<br />1*[(dd) the items of expenditure in the running of the<br />canteen which are not to be taken into account in<br />fixing the cost of foodstuffs and which shall be borne<br />by the employer;]<br />(e) the delegation to the Chief Inspector, subject to such<br />conditions as may be prescribed, of the power to make<br />rules under clause (c).<br />47.<br />Shelters, rest rooms and lunch rooms.<br />47. Shelters, rest rooms and lunch rooms. (1) In every factory<br />wherein more than one hundred and fifty workers are ordinarily<br />employed, adequate and suitable shelters or rest rooms and a suitable<br />lunch room, with provision for drinking water, where workers can eat<br />meals brought by them, shall be provided and maintained for the use of<br />the workers:<br />Provided that any canteen maintained in accordance with the<br />provisions of section 46 shall be regarded as part of the requirements<br />of this sub-section:<br />Provided further that where a lunch room exists no worker shall<br />37<br />eat any food in the work room.<br />(2) The shelters or rest rooms or lunch rooms to be provided<br />under sub-section (1) shall be sufficiently lighted and ventilated and<br />shall be maintained in a cool and clean condition.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 22 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />60C<br />(3) The State Government may--<br />(a) prescribe the standards in respect of construction,<br />accommodation, furniture and other equipment of<br />shelters, rest rooms and lunch rooms to be provided<br />under this section;<br />(b) by notification in the Official Gazette, exempt any<br />factory or class or description of factories from the<br />requirements of this section.<br />48.<br />Creches.<br />48. Creches. (1) In every factory wherein more than 1*[thirty<br />women workers] are ordinarily employed there shall be provided and<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 23, for "fifty women workers" (w.e.f.<br />26-10-1976).<br />61<br />maintaained a suitable room or rooms for the use of children under<br />the age of six years of such women.<br />(2) Such rooms shall provide adequate accommodation, shall be<br />adequately lighted and ventilated, shall be maintained in a clean and<br />sanitary condition and shall be under the charge of women trained in<br />the care of children and infants.<br />(3) The State Government may make rules--<br />(a) prescribing the location and the standards in respect<br />of construction, accommodation, furniture and other<br />equipment of rooms to be provided under this section;<br />(b) requiring the provision in factories to which this<br />section applies of additional facilities for the care<br />of children belonging to women workers, including<br />suitable provision of facilities for washing and<br />changing their clothing;<br />(c) requiring the provision in any factory of free milk or<br />refreshment or both for such children;<br />(d) requiring that facilities shall be given in any factory<br />for the mothers of such children to feed them at the<br />necessary intervals.<br />49.<br />Welfare officers.<br />49. Welfare officers. (1) In every factory wherein five hundred<br />or more workers are ordinarily employed the occupier shall employ in<br />the factory such number of welfare officers as may be prescribed.<br />(2) The State Government may prescribe the duties, qualifications<br />38<br />and conditions of service of officers employed under sub-section (1).<br />50.<br />Power to make rules to supplement this Chapter.<br />50. Power to make rules to supplement this Chapter. The State<br />Government may make rules--<br />(a) exempting, subject to compliance with such alternative<br />arrangements for the welfare of workers as may be<br />prescribed, any factory or class or description of<br />factories from compliance with any of the provisions of<br />this Chapter;<br />(b) requiring in any factory or class or description of<br />factories that representatives of the workers employed<br />in the factory shall be associated with the management<br />of the welfare arrangements of the workers.<br />62<br />CHAP<br />WORKING HOURS OF ADULTS<br />CHAPTER VI<br />WORKING HOURS OF ADULTS<br />51.<br />Weekly hours.<br />51. Weekly hours. No adult worker shall be required or allowed to<br />work in a factory for more than forty-eight hours in any week.<br />52.<br />Weekly holidays.<br />52. Weekly holidays. (1) No adult worker shall be required or<br />allowed to work in a factory on the first day of the week (hereinafter<br />referred to as the said day), unless--<br />(a) he has or will have a holiday for a whole day on one of<br />the three days immediately before or after the said<br />day, and<br />(b) the manager of the factory has, before the said day or<br />the substituted day under clause (a), whichever is<br />earlier,--<br />(i) delivered a notice at the office of the<br />Inspector of his intention to require the worker<br />to work on the said day and of the day which is to<br />be substituted, and<br />(ii) displayed a notice to that effect in the<br />factory:<br />Provided that no substitution shall be made which will result in<br />any worker working for more than ten days consecutively without a<br />holiday for a whole day.<br />39<br />(2) Notices given under sub-section (1) may be cancelled by a<br />notice delivered at the office of the Inspector and a notice displayed<br />in the factory not later than the day before the said day or the<br />holiday to be cancelled, whichever is earlier.<br />(3) Where, in accordance with the provisions of sub-section (1),<br />any worker works on the said day and has had a holiday on one of the<br />three days immediately before it, that said day shall, for the purpose<br />of calculating his weekly hours of work, be included in the preceding<br />week.<br />53.<br />Compensatory holidays.<br />53. Compensatory holidays. (1) Where, as a result of the passing<br />of an order or the making of a rule under the provisions of this Act<br />exempting a factory or the workers therein from the provisions of<br />section 52, a worker is deprived of any of the weekly holidays for<br />which provision is made in sub-section (1) of that section, he shall<br />be allowed, within the month in which the holidays were due to him or<br />within the two months immediately following that month, compensatory<br />holidays of equal number of the holidays so lost.<br />63<br />(2) The State Government may prescribe the manner in which the<br />holidays for which provision is made in sub-section (1) shall be<br />allowed.<br />54.<br />Daily hours.<br />54. Daily hours. Subject to the provisions of section 51, no<br />adult worker shall be required or allowed to work in a factory for<br />more than nine hours in any day:<br />1*[Provided that, subject to the previous approval of the Chief<br />Inspector, the daily maximum specified in this section may be exceeded<br />in order to facilitate the change of shifts.]<br />55.<br />Intervals for rest.<br />55. Intervals for rest. 2*[(1)]3*[The periods of work] of adult<br />workers in a factory each day shall be so fixed that no period shall<br />exceed five hours and that no worker shall work for more than five<br />hours before he has had an interval for rest of at least half an hour.<br />4*[(2) The State Government or, subject to the control of the<br />State Government, the Chief Inspector, may, by written order and for<br />the reasons specified therein, exempt any factory from the provisions<br />of sub-section (1) so however that the total number of hours worked by<br />a worker without an interval does not exceed six.]<br />56.<br />Spreadover.<br />56. Spreadover. The periods of work of an adult worker in a<br />factory shall be so arranged that inclusive of his intervals for rest<br />under section 55, they shall not spreadover more than ten and a half<br />hours in any day:<br />40<br />Provided that the Chief Inspector may, for reasons to be<br />specified in writing, increase the 5*[spreadover up to twelve hours].<br />57.<br />Night shifts.<br />57. Night shifts. Where a worker in a factory works on a shift<br />which extends beyond midnight,--<br />(a) for the purposes of sections 52 and 53, a holiday for a<br />whole day shall mean in his case a period of twentyfour<br />consecutive hours beginning when his shift ends;<br />(b) the following day for him shall be deemed to be the<br />period of twenty-four hours beginning when such shift<br />----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Added by Act 25 of 1954, s. 10.<br />2. S. 55 renumbered as sub-section (1) of that section by s. 11,<br />ibid.<br />3. Subs. by Act 40 of 1949, s. 3 and Sch. II, for "The period".<br />4. Added by Act 25 of 1954, s. 11.<br />5. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 24, for the words "spreadover to<br />twelve hours" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />64<br />ends, and the hours he has worked after midnight<br />shall be counted in the previous day.<br />58.<br />Prohibition of overlapping shifts.<br />58. Prohibition of overlapping shifts. (1) Work shall not be<br />carried on in any factory by means of a system of shifts so arranged<br />that more than one relay of workers is engaged in work of the same<br />kind at the same time.<br />1*[(2) The State Government or subject to the control of the<br />State Government, the Chief Inspector, may, by written order and for<br />the reasons specified therein, exempt on such conditions as may be<br />deemed expedient, any factory or class or description of factories or<br />any department or section of a factory or any category or description<br />of workers therein from the provisions of sub-section (1).]<br />59.<br />Extra wages for overtime.<br />59. Extra wages for overtime. (1) Where a worker works in a<br />factory for more than nine hours in any day or for more than fortyeight<br />hours in any week, he shall, in respect of overtime work, be<br />entitled to wages at the rate of twice his ordinary rate of wages.<br />2*[(2) For the purposes of sub-section (1), "ordinary rate of<br />wages" means the basic wages plus such allowances, including the cash<br />equivalent of the advantage accruing through the concessional sale to<br />workers of foodgrains and other articles, as the worker is for the<br />time being entitled to, but does not include a bonus and wages for<br />overtime work.<br />(3) Where any workers in a factory are paid on a piece-rate<br />basis, the time rate shall be deemed to be equivalent to the daily<br />average of their full-time earnings for the days on which they<br />actually worked on the same or identical job during the month<br />41<br />immediately preceding the calendar month during which the overtime<br />work was done, and such time rates shall be deemed to be the ordinary<br />rates of wages of those workers:<br />Provided that in the case of a worker who has not worked in the<br />immediately preceding calendar month on the same or identical job, the<br />time rate shall be deemed to be equivalent to the daily average of the<br />earning of the worker for the days on which he actually worked in the<br />week in which the overtime work was done.<br />Explanation.--For the purposes of this sub-section in computing<br />the earnings for the days on which the worker actually worked such<br />allowances, including the cash equivalent of the advantage accruing<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 12.<br />2. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 25, for sub-sections (2) and (3)<br />(w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />65<br />through the concessional sale to workers of foodgrains and other<br />articles, as the worker is for the time being entitled to, shall be<br />included but any bonus or wages for overtime work payable in relation<br />to the period with reference to which the earnings are being computed<br />shall be excluded.]<br />1*[(4) The cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through the<br />concessional sale to a worker of foodgrains and other articles shall<br />be computed as often as may be prescribed on the basis of the maximum<br />quantity of foodgrains and other articles admissible to a standard<br />family.<br />Explanation 1.--"Standard family" means a family consisting of<br />the worker, his or her spouse and two children below the age of<br />fourteen years requiring in all three adult consumption units.<br />Explanation 2.--"Adult consumption unit" means the consumption<br />unit of a male above the age of fourteen years; and the consumption<br />unit of a female above the age of fourteen years; and that of a child<br />below the age of fourteen years shall be calculated at the rates of .8<br />and .6 respectively of one adult consumption unit.<br />(5) The State Government may make rules prescribing-<br />(a) the manner in which the cash equivalent of the<br />advantage accruing through the concessional sale to a<br />worker of foodgrains and other articles shall be<br />computed; and<br />(b) the registers that shall be maintained in a factory for<br />the purpose of securing compliance with the provisions<br />of this section.]<br />60.<br />Restriction on double employment.<br />60. Restriction on double employment. No adult worker shall be<br />required or allowed to work in any factory on any day on which he has<br />already been working in any other factory, save in such circumstances<br />as may be prescribed.<br />61.<br />Notice of periods of work for adults.<br />61. Notice of periods of work for adults. (1) There shall be<br />displayed and correctly maintained in every factory in accordance with<br />the provisions of sub-section (2) of section 108, a notice of periods<br />42<br />of work for adults, showing clearly for every day the periods during<br />which adult workers may be required to work.<br />(2) The periods shown in the notice required by sub-section (1)<br />shall be fixed beforehand in accordance with the following provisions<br />of this section, and shall be such that workers working for those<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 13.<br />66<br />periods would not be working in contravention of any of the provisions<br />of sections, 51,52,54, 1*[55,56 and 58].<br />(3) Where all the adult workers in a factory are required to work<br />during the same periods, the manager of the factory shall fix those<br />periods for such workers generally.<br />(4) Where all the adult workers in a factory are not required to<br />work during the same periods, the manager of the factory shall<br />classify them into groups according to the nature of their work<br />indicating the number of workers in each group.<br />(5) For each group which is not required to work on a system of<br />shifts, the manager of the factory shall fix the periods during which<br />the group may be required to work.<br />(6) Where any group is required to work on a system of shifts and<br />the relays are not to be subject to predetermined periodical changes<br />of shifts, the manager of the factory shall fix the periods during<br />which each relay of the group may be required to work.<br />(7) Where any group is to work on a system of shifts and the<br />relays are to be subject to predetermined periodical changes of<br />shifts, the manager of the factory shall draw up a scheme of shifts<br />where-under the periods during which any relay of the group may be<br />required to work and the relay which will be working at any time of<br />the day shall be known for any day.<br />(8) The State Government may prescribe forms of the notice<br />required by sub-section (1) and the manner in which it shall be<br />maintained.<br />(9) In the case of a factory beginning work after the<br />commencement of this Act, a copy of the notice referred to in subsection<br />(1) shall be sent in duplicate to the Inspector before the day<br />on which work is begun in the factory.<br />(10) Any proposed change in the system of work in any factory<br />which will necessitate a change in the notice referred to in subsection<br />(1) shall be notified to the Inspector in duplicate before the<br />change is made, and except with the previous sanction of the<br />Inspector, no such change shall be made until one week has elapsed<br />since the last change.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 14, for "55 and 56".<br />67<br />62.<br />Register of adult workers.<br />62. Register of adult workers. (1) The manager of every factory<br />shall maintain a register of adult workers, to be available to the<br />Inspector at all times during working hours, or when any work is being<br />carried on in the factory, showing--<br />(a) the name of each adult worker in the factory;<br />(b) the nature of his work;<br />43<br />(c) the group, if any, in which he is included;<br />(d) where his group works on shifts, the relay to which he<br />is allotted;<br />(e) such other particulars as may be prescribed:<br />Provided that, if the Inspector is of opinion that any muster<br />roll or register maintained as part of the routine of a factory gives<br />in respect of any or all the workers in the factory the particulars<br />required under this section, he may, by order in writing, direct that<br />such muster roll or register shall to the corresponding extent be<br />maintained in place of, and be treated as, the register of adult<br />workers in that factory.<br />1*[(1A) No adult worker shall be required or allowed to work in<br />any factory unless his name and other particulars have been entered in<br />the register of adult workers.]<br />(2) The State Government may prescribe the form of the register<br />of adult workers, the manner in which it shall be maintained and the<br />period for which it shall be preserved.<br />63.<br />Hours of work to correspond with notice under section 61 and<br />registerunder<br />section 62.<br />63. Hours of work to correspond with notice under section 61 and<br />register under section 62. No adult worker shall be required or<br />allowed to work in any factory otherwise than in accordance with the<br />notice of periods of work for adults displayed in the factory and the<br />entries made before-hand against his name in the register of adult<br />workers of the factory.<br />64.<br />Power to make exempting rules.<br />64. Power to make exempting rules. (1) The State Government may<br />make rules defining the persons who hold positions of supervision or<br />management or are employed in a confidential position in a factory<br />2*[or empowering the Chief Inspector to declare any person, other than<br />a person defined by such rules, as a person holding position of<br />supervision or<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 26 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 27, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />68<br />management or employed in a confidential position in a factory if, in<br />the opinion of the Chief Inspector, such person holds such position or<br />is so employed], and the provisions of this Chapter, other than the<br />provisions of clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 66 and of the<br />proviso to that sub-section, shall not apply to any person so defined<br />1*[or declared]:<br />1*[Provided that any person so defined or declared shall, where<br />the ordinary rate of wages of such person 2*[does not exceed the wage<br />limit specified in sub-section (6) of section 1 of the Payment of<br />Wages Act, 1936, as amended from time to time] be entitled to extra<br />wages in respect of overtime work under section 59.]<br />(2) The State Government may make rules in respect of adult<br />workers in factories providing for the exemption, to such extent and<br />subject to such conditions as may be prescribed--<br />44<br />(a) of workers engaged on urgent repairs, from the<br />provisions of section 51,52,54,55 and 56;<br />(b) of workers engaged in work in the nature of preparatory<br />or complementary work which must necessarily be carried<br />on outside the limits laid down for the general working<br />of the factory, from the provisions of sections 51, 54,<br />55 and 56;<br />(c) of workers engaged in work which is necessarily so<br />intermittent that the intervals during which they do<br />not work while on duty ordinarily amount to more than<br />the intervals for rest required by or under section 55,<br />from the provisions of sections 51, 54, 55 and 56;<br />(d) of workers engaged in any work which for technical<br />reasons must be carried on continuously 3*** from the<br />provisions of sections 51, 52, 54, 55 and 56;<br />(e) of workers engaged in making or supplying articles of<br />prime necessity which must be made or supplied every<br />day, from the provisions of 4*[section 51 and section<br />52];<br />(f) of workers engaged in a manufacturing process which<br />cannot be carried on except during fixed seasons, from<br />the provisions of 3*[section 51, section 52 and section<br />54];<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 27 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 21 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />3. The word "throughout the day" omitted by Act 25 of 1954, s. 15.<br />4. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 27, for "section 52" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />69<br />(g) of workers engaged in a manufacturing process which<br />cannot be carried on except at times dependent on the<br />irregular action of natural forces, from the provisions<br />of sections 52 and 55;<br />(h) of workers engaged in engine-rooms or boiler-houses or<br />in attending to power-plant or transmission machinery,<br />from the provisions of 1*[section 51 and section 52];<br />2*[(i) of workers engaged in the printing of newspapers, who<br />are held up on account of the breakdown of machinery,<br />from the provisions of sections 51, 54 and 56.<br />Explanation.--In this clause the expression "newspapers" has<br />the meaning assigned to it in the Press and Registration of<br />Books Act, 1867 (25 of 1867);<br />(j) of workers engaged in the loading or unloading of<br />railway wagons 3*[or lorries or trucks,] from the<br />provisions of section 51, 52, 54, 55 and 56;]<br />3*[(k) of workers engaged in any work, which is notified by<br />the State Government in the Official Gazette as a work<br />of national importance, from the provisions of section<br />51, section 52, section 54, section 55 and section 56.]<br />(3) Rules made under sub-section (2) providing for any exemption<br />may also provide for any consequential exemption from the provisions<br />of section 61 which the State Government may deem to be expedient,<br />subject to such conditions as it may prescribe.<br />4*[(4) In making rules under this section, the State Government<br />shall not exceed, except in respect of exemption under clause (a) of<br />sub-section (2), the following limits of work inclusive of overtime:-<br />45<br />(i) the total number of hours of work in any day shall not<br />exceed ten;<br />[B<br />(ii) the spreadover, inclusive of intervals for rest, shall<br />not exceed twelve hours in any one day:<br />Provided that the State Government may, in respect of any or all<br />of the categories of workers referred to in clause (d) of sub-section<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 27, for "section 52" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Added by Act 25 of 1954, s. 15.<br />3. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 27 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />4. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 15, for sub-section (4).<br />70<br />(2), make rules prescribing the circumstances in which, and the<br />conditions subject to which, the restrictions imposed by clause (i)<br />and clause (ii) shall not apply in order to enable a shift worker to<br />work the whole or part of a subsequent shift in the absence of a<br />worker who has failed to report for duty;<br />1*[(iii) the total number of hours of work in a week,<br />including overtime, shall not exceed sixty;]<br />2*[(iv) the total number of hours of overtime shall not<br />exceed fifty for any one quarter.<br />Explanation.--"Quarter" means a period of three consecutive<br />months beginning on the 1st of January, the 1st of April the<br />1st of July or the 1st of October.]<br />(5) Rules made under this section shall remain in force for not<br />more than 3*[five years].<br />65.<br />Power to make exempting orders.<br />65. Power to make exempting orders. (1) Where the State<br />Government is satisfied that, owing to the nature of the work carried<br />on or to other circumstances, it is unreasonable to require that the<br />periods of work of any adult workers in any factory or class or<br />description of factories should be fixed beforehand, it may, by<br />written order, relax or modify the provisions of section 61 in respect<br />of such workers therein, to such extent and in such manner as it may<br />think fit, and subject to such conditions as it may deem expedient to<br />ensure control over periods of work.<br />(2) The State Government or, subject to the control of the State<br />Government, the Chief Inspector, may by written order exempt, on such<br />conditions as it or he may deem expedient, any or all of the adult<br />workers in any factory or group or class or description of factories<br />from any or all of the provisions of sections 51, 52, 54 and 56 on the<br />ground that the exemption is required to enable the factory or<br />factories to deal with an exceptional press of work.<br />4*[(3) Any exemption granted under sub-section (2) shall be<br />subject to the following conditions, namely:--<br />(i) the total number of hours of work in any day shall not<br />exceed twelve;<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 27 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Cl. (iii) renumbered as cl. (iv) by s. 27, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />3. Subs. by s. 27, ibid., for "three years" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />4. Subs. by s. 28, ibid, for sub-section (3) (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />70A<br />46<br />(ii) the spreadover, inclusive of intervals for rest, shall<br />not exceed thirteen hours in any one day;<br />(iii)the total number of hours of work in any week,<br />including overtime, shall not exceed sixty;<br />(iv) no worker shall be allowed to work overtime, for more<br />than seven days at a stretch and the total number of<br />hours of overtime work in any quarter shall not exceed<br />seventy-five.<br />Explanation.--In this sub-section "quarter" has the same meaning<br />as in sub-section (4) of section 64.]<br />1* * * * *<br />66.<br />Further restrictions on employment of women.<br />66. Further restrictions on employment of women. (1) The<br />provisions of this Chapter shall, in their application to women in<br />factories, be supplemented by the following further restrictions,<br />namely:--<br />(a) no exemption from the provisions of section 54 may be<br />granted in respect of any woman;<br />(b) no woman shall be 2*[required or allowed to work in any<br />factory] except between the hours of 6 A.M. and 7 P.M.<br />Provided that the State Government may, by notification<br />in the Official Gazette, in respect of 2*[any factory<br />or group or class or description of factories,] vary<br />the limits laid down in clause (b), but so that no such<br />variation shall authorize the employment of any woman<br />between the hours of 10 P.M. and 5 A.M.;<br />3*[(c) there shall be no change of shifts except after a<br />weekly holiday or any other holiday.]<br />(2) The State Government may make rules providing for the<br />exemption from the restrictions set out in sub-section (1), to such<br />extent and subject to such conditions as it may prescribe, of women<br />working in fish-curing or fish-canning factories, where the employment<br />of women beyond the hours specified in the said restrictions is<br />necessary to prevent damage to, or deterioration in, any raw material.<br />(3) The rules made under sub-section (2) shall remain in force<br />for not more than three years at a time.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Sub-section (4) omitted by Act 94 of 1976, s. 28 (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Subs. by s. 29, ibid., for certain words (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Ins. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 17.<br />70B<br />CHAP<br />EMPLOYMENT OF YOUNG PERSONS<br />CHAPTER VII<br />EMPLOYMENT OF YOUNG PERSONS<br />67.<br />47<br />Prohibition of employment of young children.<br />67. Prohibition of employment of young children. No child who has<br />not completed his fourteenth year shall be required or allowed to work<br />in any factory.<br />68.<br />Non-adult workers to carry tokens.<br />68. Non-adult workers to carry tokens. A child who has completed<br />his fourteenth year or an adolescent shall not be required or allowed<br />to work in any factory unless--<br />(a) a certificate of fitness granted with reference to him<br />under section 69 is in the custody of the manager of<br />the factory, and<br />(b) such child or adolescent carries while he is at work a<br />token giving a reference to such certificate.<br />69.<br />Certificates of fitness.<br />69. Certificates of fitness. (1) A certifying surgeon shall, on<br />the application of any young person or his parent or guardian<br />accompanied by a document signed by the manager of a factory that such<br />person will be employed therein if certified to be fit for work in a<br />factory, or on the application of the manager of the factory in which<br />any young person wishes to work, examine such person and ascertain his<br />fitness for work in a factory.<br />71<br />(2) The certifying surgeon, after examination, may grant to such<br />young person, in the prescribed form, or may renew--<br />(a) a certificate of fitness to work in a factory as a<br />child, if he is satisfied that the young person has<br />completed his fourteenth year, that he has attained the<br />prescribed physical standards and that he is fit for<br />such work;<br />(b) a certificate of fitness to work in a factory as an<br />adult, if he is satisfied that the young person has<br />completed his fifteenth year, and is fit for a full<br />day's work in a factory:<br />Provided that unless the certifying surgeon has personal<br />knowledge of the place where the young person proposes to work and of<br />the manufacturing process in which he will be employed, he shall not<br />grant or renew a certificate under this sub-section until he has<br />examined such place.<br />(3) A certificate of fitness granted or renewed under sub-section<br />(2)--<br />(a) shall be valid only for a period of twelve months from<br />the date thereof;<br />(b) may be made subject to conditions in regard to the<br />nature of the work in which the young person may be<br />employed, or requiring re-examination of the young<br />person before the expiry of the period of twelve<br />months.<br />48<br />(4) A certifying surgeon shall revoke any certificate granted or<br />renewed under sub-section (2) if in his opinion the holder of it is no<br />longer fit to work in the capacity stated therein in a factory.<br />(5) Where a certifying surgeon refuses to grant or renew a<br />certificate or a certificate of the kind requested or revokes a<br />certificate, he shall, if so requested by any person who could have<br />applied for the certificate or the renewal thereof, state his reasons<br />in writing for so doing.<br />(6) Where a certificate under this section with reference to any<br />young person is granted or renewed subject to such conditions as are<br />referred to in clause (b) of sub-section (3), the young person shall<br />not be required or allowed to work in any factory except in accordance<br />with those conditions.<br />(7) Any fee payable for a certificate under this section shall be<br />paid by the occupier and shall not be recoverable from the young<br />person, his parents or guardian.<br />72<br />70.<br />Effect of certificate of fitness granted to adolescent.<br />70. Effect of certificate of fitness granted to adolescent. (1)<br />An adolescent who has been granted a certificate of fitness to work in<br />a factory as an adult under clause (b) of sub-section (2) of section<br />69, and who while at work in a factory carries a token giving<br />reference to the certificate, shall be deemed to be an adult for all<br />the purposes of Chapters VI and VIII:<br />1* * * * *<br />1*[(1A) No female adolescent or a male adolescent who has not<br />attained the age of seventeen years but who has been granted a<br />certificate of fitness to work in a factory as an adult, shall be<br />required or allowed to work in any factory except between 6 A.M. and 7<br />P.M:<br />Provided that the State Government may, by notification in the<br />Official Gazette, in respect of any factory or group or class or<br />description of factories,--<br />(i) vary the limits laid down in this subsection<br />so, however, that no such section shall<br />authorise the employment of any female adolescent<br />between 10 P.M. and 5 A.M.;<br />(ii) grant exemption from the provisions of<br />this sub-section in case of serious emergency<br />where national interest is involved.]<br />(2) An adolescent who has not been granted a certificate of<br />fitness to work in a factory as an adult under the aforesaid clause<br />(b) shall, notwithstanding his age, be deemed to be a child for all<br />the purposes of this Act.<br />71.<br />Working hours for children.<br />71. Working hours for children. (1) No child shall be employed or<br />permitted to work, in any factory--<br />(a) for more than four and a half hours in any day;<br />2*[(b) during the night.<br />49<br />Explanation.--For the purpose of this sub-section "night" shall<br />mean a period of at least twelve consecutive hours which shall include<br />the interval between 10 P.M. and 6 A.M.]<br />(2) The period of work of all children employed in a factory<br />shall be limited to two shifts which shall not overlap or spread over<br />more than five hours each; and each child shall be employed in only<br />one of the relays which shall not, except with the previous permission<br />in writing of the Chief Inspector, be changed more frequently than<br />once in a period of thirty days.<br />(3) The provisions of section 52 shall apply also to child<br />workers and no exemption from the provisions of that section may be<br />granted in respect of any child.<br />(4) No child shall be required or allowed to work in any factory<br />on any day on which he has already been working in another factory.<br />3*[(5) No female child shall be required or allowed to work in<br />any factory except between 8 A.M. and 7 P.M.]<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Omitted and ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 22 (w.e.f. 1.12.87).<br />2. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954 s. 19.<br />3. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987 s. 23 (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />73<br />72.<br />Notice of periods of work for children.<br />72. Notice of periods of work for children. (1) There shall be<br />displayed and correctly maintained in every factory in which children<br />are employed, in accordance with the provisions of sub-section (2) of<br />section 108 a notice of periods of work for children, showing clearly<br />for every day the periods during which children may be required or<br />allowed to work.<br />(2) The periods shown in the notice required by sub-section (1)<br />shall be fixed beforehand in accordance with the method laid down for<br />adult workers in section 61, and shall be such that children working<br />for those periods would not be working in contravention of any of the<br />provisions of section 71.<br />(3) The provisions of sub-sections (8), (9) and (10) of section<br />61 shall apply also to the notice required by sub-section (1) of this<br />section.<br />73.<br />Register of child workers.<br />73. Register of child workers. (1) The manager of every factory<br />in which children are employed shall maintain a register of child<br />workers, to be available to the Inspector at all times during working<br />hours or when any work is being carried on in a factory, showing-<br />(a) the name of each child worker in the factory,<br />(b) the nature of his work,<br />(c) the group, if any, in which he is included,<br />(d) where his group works on shifts, the relay to which he<br />is allotted, and<br />(e) the number of his certificate of fitness granted under<br />section 69.<br />50<br />1*[(1A) No child worker shall be required or allowed to work in<br />any factory unless his name and other particulars have been entered in<br />the register of child workers.]<br />(2) The State Government may prescribe the form of the register<br />of child workers, the manner in which it shall be maintained and the<br />period for which it shall be preserved.<br />74.<br />Hours of work to correspond with notice under section 72 and<br />registerunder<br />section 73.<br />74. Hours of work to correspond with notice under section 72 and<br />register under section 73. No child shall be employed in any factory<br />otherwise than in accordance with the notice of periods of work for<br />children displayed in the factory and the entries made beforehand<br />against his name in the register of child workers of the factory.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 30 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />74<br />75.<br />Power to require medical examination.<br />75. Power to require medical examination. Where an Inspector is<br />of opinion--<br />(a) that any person working in a factory without a<br />certificate of fitness is a young person, or<br />(b) that a young person working in a factory with a<br />certificate of fitness is no longer fit to work in the<br />capacity stated therein,--<br />he may serve on the manager of the factory a notice requiring that<br />such person or young person, as the case may be, shall be examined by<br />a certifying surgeon, and such person or young person shall not, if<br />the Inspector so directs, be employed, or permitted to work, in any<br />factory until he has been so examined and has been granted a<br />certificate of fitness or a fresh certificate of fitness, as the case<br />may be, under section 69, or has been certified by the certifying<br />surgeon examining him not to be a young person.<br />76.<br />Power to make rules.<br />76. Power to make rules. The State Government may make rules-<br />(a) prescribing the forms of certificates of fitness to be<br />granted under section 69, providing for the grant of<br />duplicates in the event of loss of the original<br />certificates, and fixing the fees which may be charged<br />for such certificates and renewals thereof and such<br />duplicates;<br />(b) prescribing the physical standards to be attained by<br />children and adolescents working in factories;<br />(c) regulating the procedure of certifying surgeons under<br />this Chapter;<br />51<br />(d) specifying other duties which certifying surgeons may<br />be required to perform in connection with the<br />employment of young persons factories, and fixing the<br />fees which may be charged for such duties and the<br />persons by whom they shall be payable.<br />77.<br />Certain other provisions of law not barred.<br />77. Certain other provisions of law not barred. The provisions of<br />this Chapter shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of, the<br />provisions of the Employment of Children Act, 1938. (26 of 1938).<br />CHAP<br />ANNUAL LEAVE WITH WAGES<br />1*[CHAPTER VIII<br />ANNUAL LEAVE WITH WAGES<br />78.<br />Application of Chapter.<br />78. Application of Chapter. (1) The provisions of this Chapter<br />shall not operate to the prejudice of any right to which a worker may<br />be entitled under any<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 20, for the former Ch. VIII.<br />75<br />other law or under the terms of any award, 1*[agreement (including<br />settlement)] or contract of service:<br />2*[Provided that if such award, agreement (including settlement)<br />or contract of service provides for a longer annual leave with wages<br />than provided in this Chapter, the quantum of leave, which the worker<br />shall be entitled to, shall be in accordance with such award,<br />agreement or contract of service, but in relation to matters not<br />provided for in such award, agreement or contract of service or<br />matters which are provided for less favourably therein, the provisions<br />of sections 79 to 82, so far as may be, shall apply.]<br />(2) The provisions of this Chapter shall not apply to workers<br />3*[in any factory] of any railway administered by the Government, who<br />are governed by leave rules approved by the Central Government.<br />79.<br />Annual leave with wages.<br />79. Annual leave with wages. (1) Every worker who has worked for<br />a period of 240 days or more in a factory during a calendar year shall<br />be allowed during the subsequent calendar year, leave with wages for a<br />number of days calculated at the rate of--<br />(i) if an adult, one day for every twenty days of work<br />performed by him during the previous calendar year;<br />(ii) if a child, one day for every fifteen days of work<br />performed by him during the previous calendar year.<br />52<br />Explanation 1.--For the purpose of this sub-section-<br />(a) any days of lay off, by agreement or contract or as<br />permissible under the standing orders;<br />(b) in the case of a female worker, maternity leave for any<br />number of days not exceeding twelve weeks; and<br />(c) the leave earned in the year prior to that in which the<br />leave is enjoyed;<br />shall be deemed to be days on which the worker has worked in a factory<br />for the purpose of computation of the period of 240 days or more, but<br />he shall not earn leave for these days.<br />Explanation 2.--The leave admissible under this sub-section shall<br />be exclusive of all holidays whether occurring during or at either end<br />of the period of leave.<br />--------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 31, for "agreement" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Subs. by s. 31, ibid., for the proviso (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Subs. by s. 31, ibid., for "in any workshop" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />76<br />(2) A worker whose service commences otherwise than on the first<br />day of January shall be entitled to leave with wages at the rate laid<br />down in clause (i) or, as the case may be, clause (ii) of sub-section<br />(1) if he has worked for two-thirds of the total number of days in the<br />remainder of the calendar year.<br />1*[(3) If a worker is discharged or dismissed from service or<br />quits his employment or is superannuated or dies while in service,<br />during the course of the calendar year, he or his heir or nominee, as<br />the case may be, shall be entitled to wages in lieu of the quantum of<br />leave to which he was entitled immediately before his discharge,<br />dismissal, quitting of employment, superannuation or death calculated<br />at the rates specified in sub-section (1), even if he had not worked<br />for the entire period specified in sub-section (1) or sub-section (2)<br />making him eligible to avail of such leave, and such payment shall be<br />made--<br />(i) where the worker is discharged or dismissed or quits<br />employment, before the expiry of the second working day<br />from the date of such discharge, dismissal or quitting;<br />and<br />(ii) where the worker is superannuated or dies while in<br />service, before the expiry of two months from the date<br />of such superannuation or death.]<br />(4) In calculating leave under this section, fraction of leave of<br />half a day or more shall be treated as one full day's leave, and<br />fraction of less than half a day shall be omitted.<br />(5) If a worker does not in any one calendar year take the whole<br />of the leave allowed to him under sub-section (1) or sub-section (2),<br />as the case may be, any leave not taken by him shall be added to the<br />leave to be allowed to him in the succeeding calendar year:<br />Provided that the total number of days of leave that may be<br />carried forward to a succeeding year shall not exceed thirty in the<br />case of an adult or forty in the case of a child:<br />Provided further that a worker, who has applied for leave with<br />wages but has not been given such leave in accordance with any scheme<br />laid down in sub-sections (8) and (9) 2*[or in contravention of<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 32, for sub-section (3) (w.e.f. 26-<br />10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 32, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />53<br />77<br />sub-section (10)] shall be entitled to carry forward the 1*[leave<br />refused] without any limit.<br />(6) A worker may at any time apply in writing to the manager of a<br />factory not less than fifteen days before the date on which he wishes<br />his leave to begin, to take all the leave or any portion thereof<br />allowable to him during the calendar year:<br />Provided that the application shall be made not less than thirty<br />days before the date on which the worker wishes his leave to begin, if<br />he is employed in a public utility service as defined in clause (n) of<br />section 2 of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947: (14 of 1947.)<br />Provided further that the number of times in which leave may be<br />taken during any year shall not exceed three.<br />(7) If a worker wants to avail himself of the leave with wages<br />due to him to cover a period of illness, he shall be granted such<br />leave even if the application for leave is not made within the time<br />specified in sub-section (6); and in such a case wages as admissible<br />under section 81 shall be paid not later than fifteen days, or in the<br />case of a public utility service not later than thirty days from the<br />date of the application for leave.<br />(8) For the purpose of ensuring the continuity of work, the<br />occupier or manager of the factory, in agreement with the Works<br />Committee of the factory constituted under section 3 of the Industrial<br />Disputes Act, 1947 (14 of 1947), or a similar Committee constituted<br />under any other Act or if there is no such Works Committee or a<br />similar Committee in the factory, in agreement with the<br />representatives of the workers therein chosen in the prescribed<br />manner, may lodge with the Chief Inspector a scheme in writing whereby<br />the grant of leave allowable under this section may be regulated.<br />(9) A scheme lodged under sub-section (8) shall be displayed at<br />some conspicuous and convenient places in the factory and shall be in<br />force for a period of twelve months from the date on which it comes<br />into force, and may thereafter be renewed with or without modification<br />for a further period of twelve months at a time, by the manager in<br />agreement with the Works Committee or a similar Committee, or as the<br />case may be, in agreement with the representatives of the workers as<br />specified in sub-section (8), and a notice of renewal shall be sent to<br />the Chief Inspector before it is renewed.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 32, for "unavailed leave" (w.e.f. 26-<br />10-1976).<br />78<br />(10) An application for leave which does not contravene the<br />provisions of sub-section (6) shall not be refused, unless refusal is<br />in accordance with the scheme for the time being in operation under<br />sub-sections (8) and (9).<br />(11) If the employment of a worker who is entitled to leave under<br />sub-section (1) or sub-section (2), as the case may be, is terminated<br />by the occupier before he has taken the entire leave to which he is<br />entitled, or if having applied for and having not been granted such<br />leave, the worker quits his employment before he has taken the leave,<br />the occupier of the factory shall pay him the amount payable under<br />section 80 in respect of the leave not taken, and such payment shall<br />be made, where the employment of the worker is terminated by the<br />occupier, before the expiry of the second working day after such<br />termination, and where a worker who quits his employment, on or before<br />the next pay day.<br />(12) The unavailed leave of a worker shall not be taken into<br />consideration in computing the period of any notice required to be<br />given before discharge or dismissal.<br />54<br />80.<br />Wages during leave period.<br />80. Wages during leave period. (1) For the leave allowed to him<br />under 1*[section 78 or section 79, as the case may be,] a worker<br />2*[shall be entitled to wages] at a rate equal to the daily average of<br />his total full time earnings for the days on which 3*[he actually<br />worked] during the month immediately preceding his leave, exclusive of<br />any overtime and bonus but inclusive of dearness allowance and the<br />cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through the concessional<br />sale to the worker of foodgrains and other articles.<br />3*[Provided that in the case of a worker who has not worked on<br />any day during the calendar month immediately preceding his leave, he<br />shall be paid at a rate equal to the daily average of his total full<br />time earnings for the days on which he actually worked during the last<br />calendar month preceding his leave, in which he actually worked,<br />exclusive of any overtime and bonus but inclusive of dearness<br />allowance and the cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through<br />the concessional sale to the workers of foodgrains and other<br />articles.]<br />(2) The cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through the<br />concessional sale to the worker of foodgrains and other articles shall<br />be computed as often as may be prescribed, on the basis of the maximum<br />quantity of foodgrains and other articles admissible to a standard<br />family.<br />Explanation 1.--"Standard family" means a family consisting of a<br />worker, his or her spouse and two children below the age of fourteen<br />years requiring in all three adult consumption units.<br />Explanation 2.--"Adult consumption unit" means the consumption<br />unit of a male above the age of fourteen years; and the consumption<br />unit of a female above the age of fourteen years and that<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 33, for "section 79" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Subs. & Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 24 (w.e.f. 1-12-87).<br />3. Subs. by Act 94 of 19 s. 33, for "he worked" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />79<br />of a child below the age of fourteen years shall be calculated at the<br />rates of .8 and .6 respectively of one adult consumption unit.<br />(3) The State Government may make rules prescribing--<br />(a) the manner in which the cash equivalent of the<br />advantage accruing through the concessional sale to a<br />worker of foodgrains and other articles shall be<br />computed; and<br />(b) the registers that shall be maintained in a factory for<br />the purpose of securing compliance with the provisions<br />of this section.<br />81.<br />Payment in advance in certain cases.<br />81. Payment in advance in certain cases. A worker who has been<br />allowed leave for not less than four days, in the case of an adult,<br />and five days, in the case of a child shall, before his leave begins,<br />be paid the wages due for the period of the leave allowed.<br />82.<br />55<br />Mode of recovery of unpaid wages.<br />82. Mode of recovery of unpaid wages. Any sum required to be paid<br />by an employer, under this Chapter but not paid by him shall be<br />recoverable as delayed wages under the provisions of the Payment of<br />Wages Act 1936 (4 of 1936),<br />83.<br />Power to make rules.<br />83. Power to make rules. The State Government may make rules<br />directing managers of factories to keep registers containing such<br />particulars as may be prescribed and requiring the registers to be<br />made available for examination by Inspectors.<br />84.<br />Power to exempt factories.<br />84. Power to exempt factories. Where the State Government is<br />satisfied that the leave rules applicable to workers in a factory<br />provide benefits which in its opinion are not less favourable than<br />those for which this Chapter makes provision it may, by written order,<br />exempt the factory from all or any of the provisions of this Chapter<br />subject to such conditions as may be specified in the order.<br />1*[Explanation.--For the purposes of this section, in deciding<br />whether the benefits which are provided for by any leave rules are<br />less favourable than those for which this Chapter makes provision, or<br />not, the totality of the benefits shall be taken into account.]<br />CHAP<br />SPECIAL PROVISIONS<br />CHAPTER IX<br />SPECIAL PROVISIONS<br />85.<br />Power to apply the Act to certain premises.<br />85. Power to apply the Act to certain premises. (1) The State<br />Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, declare that<br />all or any of the provisions of this Act shall apply to any place<br />wherein a manufacturing process is carried on with<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 34 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />80<br />or without the aid of power or is so ordinarily carried on,<br />notwithstanding that--<br />(i) the number of persons employed therein is less than<br />ten, if working with the aid of power and less than<br />twenty if working without the aid of power, or<br />(ii) the persons working therein are not employed by the<br />owner thereof but are working with the permission of,<br />or under agreement with, such owner:<br />56<br />Provided that the manufacturing process is not being carried on<br />by the owner only with the aid of his family.<br />(2) After a place is so declared, it shall be deemed to be a<br />factory for the purposes of this Act, and the owner shall be deemed to<br />be the occupier, and any person working therein, a worker.<br />Explanation.--For the purposes of this section, "owner" shall<br />include a lessee or mortgagee with possession of the premises.<br />86.<br />Power to exempt public institutions.<br />86. Power to exempt public institutions. The State Government may<br />exempt, subject to such conditions as it may consider necessary, any<br />workshop or workplace where a manufacturing process is carried on and<br />which is attached to a public institution maintained for the purposes<br />of education, 1*[training, research] or reformation, from all or any<br />of the provisions of this Act:<br />Provided that no exemption shall be granted from the provisions<br />relating to hours of work and holidays, unless the persons having the<br />control of the institution submit, for the approval of the State<br />Government, a scheme for the regulation of the hours of employment,<br />intervals for meals, and holidays of the persons employed in or<br />attending the institution or who are inmates of the institution, and<br />the State Government is satisfied that the provisions of the scheme<br />are not less favourable than the corresponding provisions of this Act.<br />87.<br />Dangerous operations.<br />87. Dangerous operations. Where the State Government is of<br />opinion that any 2*[manufacturing process or operation] carried on is<br />a factory exposes any persons employed in it to a serious risk of<br />bodily injury, poisoning or<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 35, for "training" (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />2. Subs. by s. 36, ibid., for "operation" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />81<br />disease, it may make rules applicable to any factory or class or<br />description of factories in which the 1*[manufacturing process or<br />operation] is carried on--<br />(a) specifying the 1*[manufacturing process or operation]<br />and declaring it to be dangerous;<br />(b) prohibiting or restricting the employment of women,<br />adolescents or children in the 1*[manufacturing process<br />or operation];<br />(c) providing for the periodical medical examination of<br />persons employed, or seeking to be employed, in the<br />1*[manufacturing process or operation], and prohibiting<br />the employment of persons not certified as fit for such<br />employment 2*[and requiring the payment by the occupier<br />of the factory of fees for such medical examination];<br />(d) providing for the protection of all persons employed in<br />the 1*[manufacturing process or operation] or in the<br />vicinity of the places where it is carried on;<br />(e) prohibiting, restricting or controlling the use of any<br />57<br />specified materials or processes in connection with the<br />1*[manufacturing process or operation];<br />2*[(f) requiring the provision of additional welfare<br />amenities and sanitary facilities and the supply of<br />protective equipment and clothing, and laying down the<br />standards thereof, having regard to the dangerous<br />nature of the manufacturing process or operation;<br />3* * * * *<br />87A.<br />Power to prohibit employment on account of serious hazard.<br />4*[87A. Power to prohibit employment on account of serious<br />hazard. (1) Where it appears to the Inspector that conditions in a<br />factory or part thereof are such the they may cause serious hazard by<br />way of injury or death to the persons employed therein or to the<br />general public in the vicinity, he may, by order in writing to the<br />occupier of the factory, state the particulars in respect of which he<br />considers the factory or part thereof to be the cause of such serious<br />hazard and prohibit such occupier from employing any person in the<br />factory or any part thereof other than the minimum number of persons<br />necessary to attend to the minimum tasks till the hazard is removed.<br />(2) Any order issued by the Inspector under sub-section (1) shall<br />have effect for a period of three days until extended by the Chief<br />Inspector by a subsequent order.<br />(3) Any person aggrieved by an order of the Inspector under subsection<br />(1), and the Chief Inspector under sub-section (2), shall have<br />the right to appeal to the High Court.<br />(4) Any person whose employment has been affected by an order<br />issued under sub-section (1), shall be entitled to wages and other<br />benefits and it shall be the duty of the occupier to provide<br />alternative employment to him wherever possible and in the manner<br />prescribed.<br />(5) The provisions of sub-section (4) shall be without prejudice<br />to the rights of the parties under the Industrial Disputes Act,<br />1947 (14 of 1947).<br />88.<br />Notice of certain accidents.<br />88. Notice of certain accidents. 5*[(1)] Where in any factory an<br />accident occurs which causes death, or which causes any bodily injury<br />by reason of which the<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 36, "operation" (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 36, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Omitted by Act 20 of 1987, s. 25 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />4. Ins. by s. 26, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />5. S. 88 renumbered as sub-section (1) of that section by Act<br />94 of 1976. s. 37, (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />82<br />person injured is prevented from working for a period of forty-eight<br />hours or more immediately following the accident, or which is of such<br />nature as may be prescribed in this behalf, the manager of the factory<br />shall send notice thereof to such authorities, and in such form and<br />within such time, as may be prescribed.<br />1*[(2) Where a notice given under sub-section (1) relates to an<br />accident causing death, the authority to whom the notice is sent shall<br />58<br />make an inquiry into the occurrence within one month of the receipt of<br />the notice or, if such authority is not the Inspector, cause the<br />Inspector to make an inquiry within the said period.<br />(3) The State Government may make rules for regulating the<br />procedure at inquiries under this section.]<br />88A.<br />Notice of certain dangerous occurrences.<br />2*[88A. Notice of certain dangerous occurrences. Where in a<br />factory any dangerous occurrence of such nature as may be prescribed<br />occurs, whether causing any bodily injury or disability or not, the<br />manager of the factory shall send notice thereof to such authorities,<br />and in such form and within such time, as may be prescribed.]<br />89.<br />Notice of certain diseases.<br />89. Notice of certain diseases. (1) Where any worker in a factory<br />contracts any disease specified in 3*[the third Schedule], the manager<br />of the factory shall send notice thereof to such authorities, and in<br />such form and within such time, as may be prescribed.<br />(2) If any medical practitioner attends on a person who is or has<br />been employed in a factory, and who is or is believed by the medical<br />practitioner to be, suffering from any disease specified in 3*[the<br />third Schedule], the medical practitioner shall without delay send a<br />report in writing to the office of the Chief Inspector stating--<br />(a) the name and full postal address of the patient,<br />(b) the disease from which he believes the patient to be<br />suffering, and<br />(c) the name and address of the factory in which the<br />patient is, or was last, employed.<br />(3) Where the report under sub-seciton (2) is confirmed to the<br />satisfaction of the Chief Inspector, by the certificate of a<br />certifying surgeon or otherwise, that the person is suffering from a<br />disease specified in 3*[the Third Schedule], he shall pay to the<br />medical practitioner<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 37 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />2. Ins. by s. 38, ibid. (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 27 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />83<br />such fee as may be prescribed, and the fee so paid shall be<br />recoverable as an arrear of land-revenue from the occupier of the<br />factory in which the person contracted the disease.<br />(4) If any medical practitioner fails to comply with the<br />provisions of sub-section (2), he shall be punishable with fine which<br />may extend to 1*[one thousand-rupees].<br />2*[(5) The Central Government may, by notification in the<br />Official Gazette, add to or alter the Third Schedule and any such<br />addition or alteration shall have effect as if it had been made by<br />this Act.]<br />90.<br />Power to direct enquiry into cases of accident or disease.<br />59<br />90. Power to direct enquiry into cases of accident or disease.<br />(1) The State Government may, if it considers it expedient so to do,<br />appoint a competent person to inquire into the causes of any accident<br />occurring in a factory or into any case where a disease specified in<br />2*[the Third Schedule] has been, or is suspected to have been,<br />contracted in a factory, and may also appoint one or more persons<br />possessing legal or special knowledge to act as assessors in such<br />inquiry.<br />(2) The person appointed to hold an inquiry under this section<br />shall have all the powers of a Civil Court under the Code of Civil<br />Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908), for the purposes of enforcing the<br />attendance of witnesses and compelling the production of documents and<br />material objects, and may also, so far as may be necessary for the<br />purposes of the inquiry, exercise any of the powers of an Inspector<br />under this Act; and every person required by the person making the<br />inquiry to furnish any information shall be deemed to be legally bound<br />so to do within the meaning of section 176 of the Indian Penal Code<br />(45 of 1860).<br />(3) The person holding an inquiry under this section shall make a<br />report to the State Government stating the causes of the accident, or<br />as the case may be, disease, and any attendant circumstances, and<br />adding any observations which he or any of the assessors may think fit<br />to make.<br />(4) The State Government may, if it thinks fit, cause to be<br />published any report made under this section or any extracts<br />therefrom.<br />(5) The State Government may make rules for regulating the<br />procedure at inquiries under this section.<br />91.<br />Power to take samples.<br />91. Power to take samples. (1) An Inspector may at any time<br />during the normal working hours of a factory, after informing the<br />occupier or manager of the factory or other person for the time being<br />purporting to be in charge of the factory, take in the manner<br />hereinafter provided a sufficient sample of any substance used or<br />intended to be used in the factory, such use being--<br />(a) in the belief of the Inspector in contravention of any<br />of<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. and added by Act 20 of 1987, s. 27 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />2. Subs. by s. 28, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />84<br />the provisions of this Act or the rules made<br />thereunder, or<br />(b) in the opinion of the Inspector likely to cause bodily<br />injury to, or injury to the health or, workers in the<br />factory.<br />(2) Where the Inspector takes a sample under sub-section (1), he<br />shall, in the presence of the person informed under that sub-section<br />unless such person wilfully absents himself, divide the sample into<br />three portions and effectively seal and suitably mark them, and shall<br />permit such person to add his own seal and mark thereto.<br />(3) The person informed as aforesaid shall, if the Inspector so<br />requires, provide the appliances for dividing, sealing and marking the<br />sample taken under this section.<br />60<br />(4) The Inspector shall--<br />(a) forthwith give one portion of the sample to the person<br />informed under sub-section (1);<br />(b) forthwith send the second portion to a Government<br />Analyst for analysis and report thereon;<br />(c) retain the third portion for production to the Court<br />before which proceedings, if any, are instituted in<br />respect of the substance.<br />(5) Any document purporting to be a report under the hand of any<br />Government Analyst upon any substance submitted to him for analysis<br />and report under this section, may be used as evidence in any<br />proceedings instituted in respect of the substance.<br />91A.<br />Safety and occupational health surveys.<br />1*[91A. Safety and occupational health surveys. (1) The Chief<br />Inspector, or the Director General of Factory Advice Service and<br />Labour Institutes, or the Director General of Health Services, to the<br />Government of India, or such other officer as may be authorised in<br />this behalf by the State Government or the Chief Inspector or the<br />Director General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes or<br />the Director General of Health Services may, at any time during the<br />normal working hours of a factory, or at any other time as is found by<br />him to be necessary, after giving notice in writing to the occupier or<br />manager of the factory or any other person who for the time being<br />purports to be in charge of the factory, undertake safety and<br />occupational health surveys and such occupier or<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 39 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />85<br />manager or other person shall afford all facilities for such survey,<br />including facilities for the examination and testing of plant and<br />machinery and collection of samples and other data relevant to the<br />survey.<br />(2) For the purpose of facilitating surveys under sub-section (1)<br />every worker shall, if so required by the person conducting the<br />survey, present himself to undergo such medical examination as may be<br />considered necessary by such person and furnish all information in his<br />possession and relevant to the survey.<br />(3) Any time spent by a worker for undergoing medical examination<br />or furnishing information under sub-section (2) shall, for the purpose<br />of calculating wages and extra wages for overtime work, be deemed to<br />be time during which such worker worked in the factory.]<br />1*[Explanation.--For the purposes of this section, the report, if<br />any, submitted to the State Government by the person conducting the<br />survey under sub-section (1) shall be deemed to be a report submitted<br />by an Inspector under this Act.<br />CHAP<br />PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE<br />CHAPTER X<br />PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE<br />92.<br />61<br />General penalty for offences.<br />92. General penalty for offences. Save as is otherwise expressly<br />provided in this Act and subject to the provisions of section 93, if<br />in, or in respect of, any factory there is any contravention of any of<br />the provisions of this Act or of any rules made thereunder or of any<br />order in writing given thereunder, the occupier and manager of the<br />factory shall each be guilty of an offence and punishable with<br />imprisonment for a term which may extend to 2*[two years] or with fine<br />which may extend to 2*[one lakh rupees] or with both, and if the<br />contravention is continued after conviction, with a further fine which<br />may extend to 2*[one thousand rupees] for each day on which the<br />contravention is so continued:<br />3*[Provided that where contravention of any of the provisions of<br />Chapter IV or any rule made thereunder section 87 has resulted in an<br />accident causing death or serious bodily injury, the fine shall not be<br />less than 2*[twenty five thousand] in the case of an accident causing<br />death, and 2*[five thousand rupees] in the case of an accident causing<br />serious bodily injury.<br />Explanation.--In this section and in section 94 "serious bodily<br />injury" means an injury which involves, or in all probability will<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 29 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987)<br />2. Subs. by s. 30, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />3. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976 s. 40, (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />86<br />involve, the permanent loss of the use of, or permanent injury to, any<br />limb or the permanent loss of, or injury to, sight or hearing, or the<br />fracture of any bone, but shall not include, the fracture of bone or<br />joint (not being fracture of more than one bone or joint) of any<br />phalanges of the hand or foot.]<br />93.<br />Liability of owner of premises in certain circumstances.<br />1*[93. Liability of owner of premises in certain circumstances.<br />(1) Where in any premises separate buildings are leased to different<br />occupiers for use as separate factories, the owner of the premises<br />shall be responsible for the provision and maintenance of common<br />facilities and services, such as approach roads, drainage, water<br />supply, lighting and sanitation.<br />(2) The Chief Inspector shall have, subject to the control of the<br />State Government, power to issue orders to the owner of the premises<br />in respect of the carrying out of the provisions of sub-section (1).<br />(3) Where in any premises, independent or self-contained, floors<br />or flats are leased to different occupiers for use as separate<br />factories, the owner of the premises shall be liable as if he were the<br />occupier or manager of a factory, for any contravention of the<br />provisions of this Act in respect of--<br />(i) latrines, urinals and washing facilities in so far as<br />the maintenance of the common supply of water for these<br />purposes is concerned;<br />(ii) fencing of machinery and plant belonging to the owner<br />and not specifically entrusted to the custody or use of<br />an occupier;<br />(iii)safe means of access to the floors or flats and<br />maintenance and cleanliness of stair cases and common<br />62<br />passages;<br />(iv) precautions in case of fire;<br />(v) maintenance of hoists and lifts; and<br />(vi) maintenance of any other common facilities provided in<br />the premises.<br />(4) The Chief Inspector shall have, subject to the control of the<br />State Government, power to issue orders to the owner of the premises<br />in respect of the carrying out the provisions of sub-section (3).<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 25 of 1954, s. 21.<br />87<br />(5) The provisions of sub-section (3) relating to the liability<br />of the owner shall apply where in any premises independent rooms with<br />common latrines, urinals and washing facilities are leased to<br />different occupiers for use as separate factories:<br />Provided that the owner shall be responsible also for complying<br />with the requirements relating to the provision and maintenance of<br />latrines, urinals and washing facilities.<br />(6) The Chief Inspector shall have, subject to the control of the<br />State Government, the power to issue orders to the owner of the<br />premises referred to in sub-section (5) in respect of the carrying out<br />of the provisions of section 46 or section 48.<br />(7) Where in any premises portions of a room or a shed are leased<br />to different occupiers for use as separate factories, the owner of the<br />premises shall be liable for any contravention of the provisions of-<br />(i) Chapter III, except sections 14 and 15;<br />(ii) Chapter IV, except sections 22, 23, 27, 34, 35 and 36:<br />Provided that in respect of the provisions of sections<br />21, 24 and 32 and owner's liability shall be only in so<br />far as such provisions relate to things under his<br />control:<br />Provided further that the occupier shall be responsible<br />for complying with the provisions of Chapter IV in<br />respect of plant and machinery belonging to or supplied<br />by him;<br />(iii)section 42.<br />(8) The Chief Inspector shall have, subject to the control of the<br />State Government, power to issue orders to the owner of the premises<br />in respect of the carrying out the provisions of sub-section (7).<br />(9) In respect of sub-sections (5) and (7), while computing for<br />the purposes of any of the provisions of this Act the total number of<br />workers employed, the whole of the premises shall be deemed to be a<br />single factory.]<br />94.<br />Enhanced penalty after previous conviction.<br />94. Enhanced penalty after previous conviction. 1*[(1)] If any<br />person who has been convicted of any offence punishable under section<br />92 is again guilty of an offence involving a contravention of the same<br />provision, he shall be punishable on a subsequent conviction with<br />imprisonment for a term which may<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. S. 94 renumbered as sub-section (1) of that section by Act 94 of<br />63<br />1976, s. 41 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />88<br />extend to 1*[three years] or with fine 2*[which shall not be less<br />than] 1*[ten thousand rupees] but which may extend to 1*[two lakh<br />rupees] or with both:<br />3*[Provided that the court may, for any adequate and special<br />reasons to be mentioned in the judgment, impose a fine of less than<br />1*[ten thousand rupees].<br />Provided further that where contravention of any of the<br />provisions of Chapter IV or any rule made thereunder or under section<br />87 has resulted in an accident causing death or serious bodily injury,<br />the fine shall not be less than 1*[thirty five thousand rupees] in the<br />case of an accident causing death and 1*[ten thousand rupees] in the<br />case of an accident causing serious bodily injury.]<br />4*[(2)] For the purposes of sub-section (1), no cognizance shall<br />be taken of any conviction made more than two years before the<br />commission of the offence for which the person is subsequently being<br />convicted.]<br />95.<br />Penalty for obstructing Inspector.<br />95. Penalty for obstructing Inspector. Whoever wilfully obstructs<br />an Inspector in the exercise of any power conferred on him by or under<br />this Act, or fails to produce on demand by an Inspector any registers<br />or other documents in his custody kept in pursuance of this Act or of<br />any rules made thereunder, or conceals or prevents any worker in a<br />factory from appearing before, or being examined by, an Inspector,<br />shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to<br />5*[six months] or with fine which may extend to 5*[ten thousand<br />rupees] or with both.<br />96.<br />Penalty for wrongfully disclosing results of analysis under<br />section91.<br />96. Penalty for wrongfully disclosing results of analysis under<br />section 91. Whoever, except in so far as it may be necessary for the<br />purposes of a prosecution for any offence punishable under this Act,<br />publishes or discloses to any person the results of an analysis made<br />under section 91, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term<br />which may extend to 6*[six months] or with fine which may extend to<br />6*[ten thousand rupees] or with both.<br />96A.<br />Penalty for contravention of the provisions of sections 41B, 41C<br />and41H.<br />7*[96A. Penalty for contravention of the provisions of sections<br />41B, 41C and 41H. (1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any<br />of the provisions of sections 41B, 41C or 41H or the rules made<br />thereunder, shall, in respect of such failure or contravention, be<br />punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven<br />years and with fine which may extend to two lakh rupees, and in case<br />the failure or contravention continues, with additional fine which may<br />extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure<br />or contravention continues after the conviction for the first such<br />failure or contravention.<br />64<br />(2) If the failure or contravention referred to in sub-section<br />(1) continues beyond a period of one year after the date of<br />conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a<br />term which may extend to ten years.<br />97.<br />Offences by workers.<br />97. Offences by workers. (1) Subject to the provisions of section<br />111, if any worker employed in a factory contravenes any provision of<br />this Act or any rules or orders made thereunder, imposing any duty or<br />liability on workers, he shall be punishable with fine which may<br />extend to 8*[five hundred rupees].<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 31 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />2. Subs. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 41, for certain words (w.e.f. 26-10-<br />1976).<br />3. Subs. by s. 41, ibid., for the proviso (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />4. Ins. by s. 41, ibid.(w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />5. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987 s. 32, (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />6. Subs. by s. 33, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />7. Ins. by s. 34, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />8. Subs. s. 35, ibid. (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />88A<br />(2) Where a worker is convicted of an offence punishable under<br />sub-section (1), the occupier or manager of the factory shall not be<br />deemed to be guilty of an offence in respect of that contravention,<br />unless it is proved that he failed to take all reasonable measures for<br />its prevention.<br />98.<br />Penalty for using false certificate of fitness.<br />98. Penalty for using false certificate of fitness. Whoever<br />knowingly uses or attempts to use, as a certificate of fitness granted<br />to himself under section 70, a certificate granted to another person<br />under that section, or who, having procured such a certificate,<br />knowingly allows it to be used, or an attempt to use it to be made, by<br />another person, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which<br />may extend to 1*[two month] or with fine which may extend to 1*[one<br />thousand rupees] or with both.<br />99.<br />Penalty for permitting double employment of child.<br />99. Penalty for permitting double employment of child. If a child<br />works in a factory on any day on which he has already been working in<br />another factory, the parent or guardian of the child or the person<br />having custody of or control over him or obtaining any direct benefit<br />from his wages, shall be punishable with fine which may extend to<br />2*[one thousand rupees] unless it appears to the Court that the child<br />so worked without the consent or connivance of such parent, guardian<br />or person.<br />3* * * * *<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Subs. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 36 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />2. Subs. by. s. 37, ibid (w.e.f. 1-2-1987)<br />3. Omitted by s. 38, ibid (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />88B<br />65<br />101.<br />Exemption of occupier or manager from liability in certain cases.<br />101. Exemption of occupier or manager from liability in certain<br />cases. Where the occupier or manager of a factory is charged with an<br />offence punishable under this Act, he shall be entitled, upon<br />complaint duly made by him and on giving to the prosecutor not less<br />than three clear days' notice in writing of his intention so to do, to<br />have any other person whom he charges as the actual offender brought<br />before the Court at the time appointed for hearing the charge; and if,<br />after the commission of the offence has been proved, the occupier or<br />manager of the factory, as the case may be, proves to the satisfaction<br />of the Court--<br />(a) that he has used due diligence to enforce the execution<br />of this Act, and<br />(b) that the said other person committed the offence in<br />question without his knowledge, consent or connivance,-<br />-<br />that other person shall be convicted of the offence and shall be<br />liable to the like punishment as if he were the occupier or manager of<br />the factory, and the occupier or manager, as the case may be, shall be<br />discharged from any liability under this Act in respect of such<br />offence:<br />Provided that in seeking to prove as aforesaid, the occupier or<br />manager of the factory, as the case may be, may be examined on oath,<br />and his evidence and that of any witness whom he calls in his<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />88C<br />support shall be subject to cross-examination on behalf of the person<br />he charges as the actual offender and by the prosecutor:<br />Provided further that, if the person charged as the actual<br />offender by the occupier or manager cannot be brought before the Court<br />at the time appointed for hearing the charge, the Court shall adjourn<br />the hearing from time to time for a period not exceeding three months<br />and if by the end of the said period the person charged as the actual<br />offender cannot still be brought before the Court, the Court shall<br />proceed to hear the charge against the occupier or manager and shall,<br />if the offence be proved, convict the occupier or manager.<br />102.<br />Power of Court to make orders.<br />102. Power of Court to make orders. (1) Where the occupier or<br />manager of a factory is convicted of an offence punishable under this<br />Act the Court may, in addition to awarding any punishment, by order in<br />writing require him, with-in a period specified in the order (which<br />the Court may, if it thinks fit and on application in such behalf,<br />from time to time extend) to take such measures as may be so specified<br />for remedying the matters in respect of which the offence was<br />committed.<br />(2) Where an order is made under sub-section (1), the occupier or<br />manager of the factory, as the case may be, shall not be liable under<br />this Act in respect of the continuation of the offence during the<br />period or extended period, if any, allowed by the Court, but if, on<br />the expiry of such period or extended period, as the case may be, the<br />order of the Court has not been fully complied with, the occupier or<br />manager, as the case may be, shall be deemed to have committed a<br />further offence, and may be sentenced therefor by the Court to undergo<br />imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months or to pay a<br />fine which may extend to one hundred rupees for every day after such<br />66<br />expiry on which the order has not been complied with, or both to<br />undergo such imprisonment and to pay such fine, as aforesaid.<br />103.<br />Presumption as to employment.<br />103. Presumption as to employment. If a person is found in a<br />factory at any time, except during intervals for meals or rest, when<br />work is going on or the machinery is in motion, he shall until the<br />contrary is proved, be deemed for the purposes of this Act and the<br />rules made thereunder to have been at that time employed in the<br />factory.<br />104.<br />Onus as to age.<br />104. Onus as to age. (1) When any act or omission would, if a<br />person were under a certain age, be an offence punishable under this<br />Act, and such person is in the opinion of the Court prima facie under<br />such age, the burden shall be on the accused to prove that such person<br />is not under such age.<br />88D<br />(2) A declaration in writing by a certifying surgeon relating to<br />a worker that he has personally examined him and believes him to be<br />under the age stated in such declaration shall, for the purposes of<br />this Act and the rules made thereunder, be admissible as evidence of<br />the age of that worker.<br />104A<br />Onus of proving limits of what is practicable, etc.<br />1*[104A. Onus of proving limits of what is practicable, etc. In<br />any proceeding for an offence for the contravention of any provision<br />of this Act of rules made thereunder consisting of a failure to comply<br />with a duty or requirement to do something, it shall be for the person<br />who is alleged to have failed to comply with such duty or requirement,<br />to prove that it was not reasonably practicable or, as the case may<br />be, all practicable measures were taken to satisfy the duty or<br />requirement.]<br />105.<br />Cognizance of offences.<br />105. Cognizance of offences. (1) No Court shall take cognizance<br />of any offence under this Act except on complaint by, or with the<br />previous sanction in writing of, an Inspector.<br />(2) No Court below that of a Presidency Magistrate or of a<br />Magistrate of the first class shall try any offence punishable under<br />this Act.<br />106.<br />Limitation of prosecutions.<br />106. Limitation of prosecutions. No Court shall take cognizance<br />of any offence punishable under this Act unless complaint thereof made<br />67<br />within three months of the date on which the alleged commission of the<br />offence came to the knowledge of an Inspector:<br />Provided that where the offence consists of disobeying a written<br />order made by an Inspector, complaint thereof may be made within six<br />months of the date on which the offence is alleged to have been<br />committed.<br />2*[Explanation.--For the purposes of this section,--<br />(a) in the case of continuing offence, the period of<br />limitation shall be computed with reference to every<br />point of time during which the offence continues;<br />(b) where for the performance of any act time is granted or<br />extended on an application made by the occupier or<br />manager of a factory, the period of limitation shall be<br />computed from the date on which the time so granted or<br />extended expired.<br />106A<br />Jurisdiction of a court for entertaining proceedings, etc.,<br />foroffence.<br />3*[106A. Jurisdiction of a court for entertaining proceedings,<br />etc., for offence. For the purposes of conferring jurisdiction on any<br />court in relation to an offence under this Act or the rules made<br />thereunder in connection with the operation of any plant, the place<br />where the plant is for the time being situate shall be deemed to be<br />the place where such offence has been committed.]<br />CHAP<br />SUPPLEMENTAL<br />CHAPTER XI<br />SUPPLEMENTAL<br />107.<br />Appeals.<br />107. Appeals. (1) The manager of a factory on whom an order in<br />writing by an Inspector has been served under the provisions or this<br />Act or<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 39 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />2. Ins. by Act 94 of 1976, s. 43 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976).<br />3. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987 s. 40 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />89<br />the occupier of the factory may, within thirty days of the service of<br />the order, appeal against it to the prescribed authority, and such<br />authority may, subject to rules made in this behalf by the State<br />Government, confirm, modify or reverse the order.<br />(2) Subject to rules made in this behalf by the State Government<br />(which may prescribe classes of appeals which shall not be heard with<br />the aid of assessors), the appellate authority may, or if so required<br />in the petition of appeal shall, hear the appeal with the aid of<br />assessors, one of whom shall be appointed by the appellate authority<br />and the other by such body representing the industry concerned as may<br />be prescribed:<br />68<br />Provided that if no assessor is appointed by such body before the<br />time fixed for hearing the appeal, or if the assessor so appointed<br />fails to attend the hearing at such time, the appellate authority may,<br />unless satisfied that the failure to attend is due to sufficient<br />cause, proceed to hear the appeal without the aid of such assessor or,<br />if it thinks fit, without the aid of any assessor.<br />(3) Subject to such rules as the State Government may make in<br />this behalf and subject to such conditions as to partial compliance or<br />the adoption of temporary measures as the appellate authority may in<br />any case think fit to impose, the appellate authority may, if it<br />thinks fit, suspend the order appealed against pending the decision of<br />the appeal.<br />108.<br />Display of notices.<br />108. Display of notices. (1) In addition to the notices required<br />to be displayed in any factory by or under this Act, there shall be<br />displayed in every factory a notice containing such abstracts of this<br />Act and of the rules made thereunder as may be prescribed and also the<br />name and address of the Inspector and the certifying surgeon.<br />(2) All notices required by or under this Act to be displayed in<br />a factory shall be in English and in a language understood by the<br />majority of the workers in the factory, and shall be displayed at some<br />conspicuous and convenient place at or near the main entrance to the<br />factory, and shall be maintained in a clean and legible condition.<br />(3) The Chief Inspector may, by order in writing served on the<br />manager of any factory, require that there shall be displayed in the<br />factory any other notice or poster relating to the health, safety or<br />welfare of the workers in the factory.<br />109.<br />Service of notices.<br />109. Service of notices. The State Government may make rules<br />prescribing the manner of the service of orders under this Act on<br />owners, occupiers or managers of factories.<br />90<br />110.<br />Returns.<br />110. Returns. The State Government may make rules requiring<br />owners, occupiers or mangers of factories to submit such returns,<br />occasional or periodical, as may in its opinion be required for the<br />purposes of this Act.<br />111.<br />Obligations of workers.<br />111. Obligations of workers. (1) No worker in a factory--<br />(a) shall wilfully interfere with or misuse any appliance,<br />convenience or other thing provided in a factory for<br />the purposes of securing the health, safety or welfare<br />of the workers therein;<br />69<br />(b) shall wilfully and without reasonable cause do anything<br />likely to endanger himself or others; and<br />(c) shall wilfully neglect to make use of any appliance or<br />other thing provided in the factory for the purposes of<br />securing the health of safety of the workers therein.<br />(2) If any worker employed in a factory contravenes any of the<br />provisions of this section or of any rule or order made thereunder, he<br />shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to<br />three months, or with fine which may extend to one hundred rupees, or<br />with both.<br />111A<br />Right or workers, etc.<br />1*[111A. Right or workers, etc. Every worker shall have the right<br />to--<br />(i) obtain from the occupier, information relating to<br />workers' health and safety at work,<br />(ii) get trained within the factory wherever possible, or,<br />to get himself sponsored by the occupier for getting trained at a<br />training centre or institute, duly approved by the Chief<br />Inspector, where training is imparted for workers' health and<br />safety at work.<br />(iii) represent to the Inspector directly or through his<br />representative in the matter of inadequate provision for<br />protection of his health or safety in the factory.]<br />112.<br />General power to make rules.<br />112. General power to make rules. The State Government may make<br />rules providing for any matter which, under any of the provisions of<br />this Act, is to be or may be prescribed or which may be considered<br />expedient in order to give effect to the purposes of this Act.<br />113.<br />Powers of Centre to give directions.<br />113. Powers of Centre to give directions. The Central Government<br />may give directions to a State Government as to the carrying into<br />execution of the provisions of this Act.<br />114.<br />No charge for facilities and conveniences.<br />114. No charge for facilities and conveniences. Subject to the<br />provisions of section 46 no fee or charge shall be realised from any<br />worker in respect of any arrangements or facilities to be provided, or<br />any equipments or appliances to be supplied by the occupier under the<br />provisions of this Act.<br />115.<br />Publication of rules.<br />70<br />115. Publication of rules. 2*[(1)] All rules made under this Act<br />shall be published in the Official Gazette, and shall be subject to<br />the condition of previous publication ; and the date to be specified<br />under clause (3) of section 23 of the General Clauses Act, 1897,(10 of<br />1897.) shall be not less than 2*[forty five days] from the date on<br />which the draft of the proposed rules was published.<br />2*[(2) Every rule made by the State Government under this Act<br />shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before the State<br />Legislature.]<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 41 (w.e.f. 1.2.1987)<br />2. Re-numbered , subs. & Ins. by s. 42, ibid (w.e.f. 1.12.1987).<br />91<br />116.<br />Application of Act to Government factories.<br />116. Application of Act of Government factories. Unless otherwise<br />provided this Act shall apply to factories belonging to the Central or<br />any State Government.<br />117.<br />Protection to persons acting under this Act.<br />117. Protection to persons acting under this Act. No suit,<br />prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against any person for<br />anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this<br />Act.<br />118.<br />Restriction on disclosure of information.<br />118. Restriction on disclosure of information. (1) No Inspector<br />shall, while in service or after leaving the service, disclose<br />otherwise than in connection with the execution, or for the purposes,<br />of this Act any information relating to any manufacturing or<br />commercial business or any working process which may come to his<br />knowledge in the course of his official duties.<br />(2) Nothing in sub-section (1) shall apply to any disclosure of<br />information made with the previous consent in writing of the owner of<br />such business or process or for the purposes of any legal proceeding<br />(including arbitration) pursuant to this Act or of any criminal<br />proceeding which may be taken, whether pursuant to this Act or<br />otherwise, or for the purposes of any report of such proceedings as<br />aforesaid.<br />(3) If any Inspector contravenes the provisions of sub-section<br />(1) he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may<br />extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to one thousand<br />rupees, or with both.<br />118A<br />Restriction on disclosure of information.<br />1*[118A. Restriction on disclosure of information. (1) Every<br />Inspector shall treat as confidential the source of any complaint<br />brought to his notice on the breach of any provision of this Act.<br />71<br />(2) No inspector shall, which making an inspection under this<br />Act, disclose to the occupier, manager or his representative that the<br />inspection is made in pursuance of the receipt of complaint:<br />Provided that nothing in this sub-section shall apply to any case<br />in which the person who has made the complaint has consented to<br />disclose his name.]<br />119.<br />Act to have effect notwithstanding anything contained in Act 37<br />of1970.<br />2*[119. Act to have effect notwithstanding anything contained in<br />Act 37 of 1970. The provisions of this Act shall have effect<br />notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in the<br />Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970. 3*[or any other<br />law for the time being in force]<br />120.<br />Repeal and savings.<br />120. Repeal and savings. The enactments set out in the Table<br />appended to this section are hereby repealed:<br />Provided that anything done under the said enactments which could<br />have been done under this Act if it had then been in force shall be<br />deemed to have been done under this Act.<br />---------------------------------------------------------------------<br />1. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987, s. 43 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987)<br />2. Ins, by Act 94 of 1976, s. 44 (w.e.f. 26-10-1976). The original<br />s. 119 was repealed by Act 35 of 1950, s. 2 and Sch. I.<br />3. Ins. by Act 20 of 1987 s. 44 (w.e.f. 1-12-1987).<br />91A<br />TABLE.--[Enactments repealed]. Rep. by the Repealing and Amending<br />Act, 1950 (35 of 1950), s. 2 and Sch. 1.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-89222900535806315272008-10-02T17:18:00.001+04:302008-10-02T17:21:00.639+04:30Organisational CultureORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE<br /><br /><br />AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER<br /><br /><br />By the end of the chapter you will:<br /><br /> Understand the relation between organizational culture and the business context. How<br />does culture contribute to organizational innovation and success?<br /> Appreciate the contribution of organizational culture to the management of change;<br /> Understand the analytic elements of organization culture, such as stories, myths, heroes<br />and villains;<br /> Have reviewed some of the cultural types in organizations;<br /> Not be too anxious about the remaining puzzles. If culture is unifying what about<br />multiple cultures and counter – cultures? Should we take a managerial or an<br />anthropological view of culture? Can culture be managed?<br />BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHAPTER<br /> Introduction<br /> Organizational culture and strategic management<br /> Success, excellence, innovation<br /> Culture and the management of change<br /> Other cultures<br /> Exploring organizational culture<br /> Culture is symbolic<br /> Culture is unifying<br /> Culture is holistic<br /> Classifying cultures?<br /> Evaluating concepts of culture<br /> Conflicting views of culture<br /> Corporate culture or corporate image?<br /> Managing culture?<br /> Conclusion<br /><br /><br />CHAPTER SYNOPSIS<br /><br /><br />In this chapter we look first at the importance of the business context. What does<br />culture contribute to the bottom line? Secondly, culture is clearly a complex subject<br />and one we will need to explore in some detail. It refers to the totality of knowledge<br />in an organization or society. Thirdly we need to review the strengths and<br />weaknesses of the cultural metaphor – in particular the tensions that exist between<br />the idea that beliefs and meanings can be ‘managed’ and that of culture as a unique<br />set of attributes.<br /><br /><br />ANNOTATED LECTURE OUTLINE<br />INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF LECTURE<br /><br /><br />Point 1 – Introduction<br /><br /><br />This sets the context for the lecture. Originally an anthropological term, culture refers<br />to the underlying values, beliefs and codes of practice that makes a community what<br />it is. The customs of society, the self – image of its members, the things that make it<br />different from other societies, are its culture. Culture is powerfully subjective and<br />reflects the meanings and understandings that we typically attribute to situations, the<br />solutions that we apply to common problems. The idea of a common culture<br />suggests possible problems about whether organizations have cultures.<br />Organizations are only one constituent element of society. People enter them from<br />the surrounding community and bring their culture with them. It is still possible for<br />organizations to have cultures of their own as they possess the paradoxical quality of<br />being both ‘part’ of and ‘apart’ from society. They are embedded in the wider societal<br />context but they are also communities of their own with distinct rules and values.<br />Point 2 – Organizational culture and strategic management<br />Culture has long been on the agenda of management theorists. Culture change<br />must mean changing the corporate ethos, the images and values that inform action<br />and this new way of understanding organizational life must be brought into the<br />management process. There are a number of central aspects of culture:<br />There is an evaluative element involving social expectations and standards;<br />the values and beliefs that people hold central and that bind organizational<br />groups.<br />Culture is also a set of more material elements or artefacts. These are the<br />signs and symbols that the organization is recognized by but they are also the<br />events, behaviours and people that embody culture.<br />The medium of culture is social interaction, the web of communications that<br />constitute a community. Here a shared language is particularly important in<br />expressing and signifying a distinctive organizational culture.<br />Point 3 – Culture and Success<br />Deal and Kennedy (1982) argue that culture is the single most important factor<br />accounting for success or failure in organizations. They identified four key<br />dimensions of culture:<br />1. Values – the beliefs that lie at the heart of the corporate culture.<br />2. Heroes – the people who embody values.<br />3. Rites and rituals – routines of interaction that have strong symbolic qualities.<br />4. The culture network – the informal communication system or hidden hierarchy of<br />power in the organization.<br />Peters and Waterman (1982) suggest a psychological theory of the link between<br />organizational culture and business performance. Culture can be looked upon as a<br />reward of work; we sacrifice much to the organization and culture is a form of return<br />on effort.<br />Kanter (1989) refers to the paradox implicit in linking culture with change. On the<br />surface culture has essentially traditional and stable qualities, so how can you have a<br />‘culture of change?’ Yet this is exactly what the innovative organization needs.<br />Point 4 – Culture and the management of change<br />If real change is to occur in organizations rather than cosmetic or short – lived<br />change, it has to happen at the cultural level. Corporate culture has many powerful<br />attractions as a lever for change. The problem is how to get a hand on the lever.<br />Firstly, cultures can be explicitly created – you have to be aware of what it<br />takes to change an existing culture.<br />The ability of companies to be culturally innovative is related to leadership<br />and top management must be responsible for building strong cultures.<br />Leaders construct the social reality of the organization, they shape values and<br />attend to the drama and vision of the organization.<br />Culture is frequently counterposed to formal rationality – in this sense culture<br />helps to resolve the dilemma of bureaucracy; formal procedures are<br />necessary for business integrity but they also stifle autonomy and innovation.<br />The period from the mid 70s has been one of growing uncertainty for firms and in<br />response to a changing environment and business crises adaptable cultures that are<br />responsive to change have become vital. Morgan (1977) focuses on the whole<br />organization, the cultivation of harmonious relations at all levels, the merging of<br />individual with common goals and a reliance on worker responsibility (Japanese<br />approaches) as success factors in organizational culture.<br />Point 5 – Exploring organizational culture<br />Attempts to define organizational culture have adopted a number of different<br />approaches. Some focus on manifestations – the heroes and villains, rites, rituals,<br />myths and legends that populate organizations. Culture is also socially constructed<br />and reflects meanings that are constituted in interaction and that form commonly<br />accepted definitions of the situation.<br />Culture is symbolic and is described by telling stories about how we feel about the<br />organization. A symbol stands for something more than itself and can be many<br />things, but the point is that a symbol is invested with meaning by us and expresses<br />forms of understanding derived from our past collective experiences. The<br />sociological view is that organizations exist in the minds of the members. Stories<br />about culture show how it acts as a sense - making device.<br />Culture is unifying and refers to the processes that bind the organization together.<br />Culture is then consensual and not conflictual. The idea of corporate culture<br />reinforces the unifying strengths of central goals and creates a sense of common<br />responsibility.<br />Culture is holistic and refers to the essence – the reality of the organization; what it is<br />like to work there, how people deal with each other and what behaviours are<br />expected.<br />All of the above elements are interlocking; culture is rooted deep in unconscious<br />sources but is represented in superficial practices and behaviour codes. Because<br />organizations are social organisms and not mechanisms, the whole is present in the<br />parts and symbolic events become microcosms of the whole.<br />Point 6 – Classifying cultures?<br />One way of exploring cultures is to classify them into types.<br />1. Role Cultures – are highly formalized, bound with regulations and paperwork and<br />authority and hierarchy dominate relations.<br />2. Task Cultures – are the opposite, the preserve a strong sense of the basic mission of the<br />organization and teamwork is the basis on which jobs are designed.<br />3. Power Cultures – have a single power source, which may be an individual or a corporate<br />group. Control of rewards is a major source of power.<br />Handy points out that these types are usually tied to a particular structure and design<br />of organization. A role culture has a typical pyramid structure. A task culture has<br />flexible matrix structures. A power culture has web – like communications structure.<br />Cultural analysis brings to centre stage a rich vein of behaviours and stands on its head much<br />of the conventional wisdom about organizations. Stories, legends, rituals and heroes are key<br />elements of organizational functioning and may actually serve more important objectives than<br />formal decision making. We need to consider in more depth the different ways in which<br />culture has been used in organization study. Wilson and Rosenfield (1990) distinguish two<br />schools of thought:<br />1. The analytical school stresses the context and history of the organization and how culture<br />acts as a socializing force controlling the behaviour of members.<br />2. The applicable school view culture in terms of commitment to central goals and as a<br />means of managing successful organizational change.<br />Point 7 – Managing culture?<br />Corporate culture is really a kind of image for the company which top management<br />would like to project. The image of the organization differs according to where you<br />view it. Even in companies with strong cultures the social distance between senior<br />management and shop floor reality can be very wide. Cultures are hardly planned or<br />predictable; they are the natural products of social interaction and evolve and emerge<br />over time. So is it valid to allow such a notion of culture to give way to a version of<br />managed consensus? Pettigrew believes that cultures can be shaped to suit<br />strategic ends. He has in mind the idea that organizations have the capacity to<br />transform themselves from within. Even if cultures can be managed is this<br />necessarily a good thing? Willmott (1993) has fashioned a tough challenge to what<br />he calls corporate culturalism. This is the tendency for culture to be promoted as a<br />device for increasing corporate effectiveness.<br />Conclusion<br />Culture spans the range of management thinking and organizational culture has been<br />one of the most enduring buzzwords of popular management. Why? What is the<br />appeal of the concept? Organizational culture is apparently unifying and this strongly<br />appeals to management’s concern with projecting an image of the organization as a<br />community of interests. Perhaps most importantly culture penetrates to the essence<br />of an organization – it almost analogous with the concept of personality in relation to<br />the individual and this acute sense of what an organization is – its mission, core<br />values – seems to have become a necessary asset of the modern company. There<br />is the vexed question of whether or not organizational culture can be managed.<br />Academics interested in understanding and analyzing culture tend to say no. While<br />there may be no definitive answer to the question, the critical and the managerial<br />sides of the debate and inform and renew each other so it remains important to<br />explore both.<br /><br /><br />DISCUSSION POINTS<br />1. As discussed, organizational culture may be perceived as different, depending on<br />where you are in the hierarchy. In relation to culture as holistic and unifying, do<br />you think this is true? Develop an argument to justify your answer using your<br />own personal examples where you can.<br />2. In addition to the types of culture discussed there is also the Person or Support culture,<br />which offers its members ‘satisfactions’ resulting from relationships, mutuality,<br />belonging and connection. Here the assumption is that people will contribute out of a<br />sense of commitment to a group or organization of which they feel they are truly<br />members and in which they have a personal stake (Harrison: 1987.) The Kibbutz, the<br />commune and the co-operative are all striving for the support culture in an organizational<br />form. In this culture, the individual themselves have almost complete autonomy over the<br />work they do and if power is to be exercised then this is on the basis of expertise. Other<br />examples of this culture are universities, barristers, architects, and doctors. In groups,<br />discuss this culture and identify the advantages and disadvantages of this cultural type to<br />organization. Do you think this culture exists in organizations?<br />3. How important is it for managers to be aware of organizational culture and why?<br />4. Sub – cultures can be the most powerful groups in organizations – discuss.<br />Exercise:<br />Hand out the reading to students who are in mixed gender groups. Ask them to<br />analyze an organization or their educational institution in relation to gender culture.<br /><br /><br />ORGANIZATIONAL GENDER CULTURE<br /><br /><br />Green and Cassell (1996) argue that the case for linking culture with gendered<br />experience is a compelling one and one which is becoming increasingly recognized<br />as crucial to the understanding of women’s experience in organizations.<br />Organizational analysis is complex in that the differentiated cultures both within and<br />between organizations can display diverse images of masculinity and femininity, but<br />nonetheless these reinforce traditional patriarchal hierarchies. Most importantly,<br />analyzing the impact of the gendered nature of organizational cultures on the<br />everyday experiences of women managers is an area ripe for further investigation.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-70334427326456692662008-10-02T17:14:00.001+04:302008-10-02T17:14:56.894+04:30Organisational ChangeWhat's "Organizational Change?"<br />Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide change, as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc. Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission,restructuring operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), new technologies, mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such as Total Quality Management, re-engineering, etc. Some experts refer to organizational transformation. Often this term designates a fundamental and radical reorientation in the way the organization operates.<br />What Provokes "Organizational Change"?<br />Change should not be done for the sake of change -- it's a strategy to accomplish some overall goal. (See Organizational Performance Management.) Usually organizational change is provoked by some major outside driving force, e.g., substantial cuts in funding, address major new markets/clients, need for dramatic increases in productivity/services, etc. Typically, organizations must undertake organization-wide change to evolve to a different level in their life cycle, e.g., going from a highly reactive, entreprenueral organization to more stable and planned development. Transition to a new chief executive can provoke organization-wide change when his or her new and unique personality pervades the entire organization.<br />Why is Organization-Wide Change Difficult to Accomplish?<br />Typically there are strong resistances to change. People are afraid of the unknown. Many people think things are already just fine and don't understand the need for change. Many are inherently cynical about change, particularly from reading about the notion of "change" as if it's a mantra. Many doubt there are effective means to accomplish major organizational change. Often there are conflicting goals in the organization, e.g., to increase resources to accomplish the change yet concurrently cut costs to remain viable. Organization-wide change often goes against the very values held dear by members in the organization, that is, the change may go against how members believe things should be done. That's why much of organizational-change literature discusses needed changes in the culture of the organization, including changes in members' values and beliefs and in the way they enact these values and beliefs.<br />How Is Organization-Wide Change Best Carried Out?<br />Successful change must involve top management, including the board and chief executive. Usually there's a champion who initially instigates the change by being visionary, persuasive and consistent. A change agent role is usually responsible to translate the vision to a realistic plan and carry out the plan. Change is usually best carried out as a team-wide effort. Communications about the change should be frequent and with all organization members. To sustain change, the structures of the organization itself should be modified, including strategic plans, policies and procedures. This change in the structures of the organization typically involves an unfreezing, change and re-freezing process.<br />The best approaches to address resistances is through increased and sustained communications and education. For example, the leader should meet with all managers and staff to explain reasons for the change, how it generally will be carried out and where others can go for additional information. A plan should be developed and communicated. Plans do change. That's fine, but communicate that the plan has changed and why. Forums should be held for organization members to express their ideas for the plan. They should be able to express their concerns and frustrations as well.<br />Some General Guidelines to Organization-Wide Change<br />(Note that the library topic Basic Overview of Major Methods and Movements to Improve Organizational Performance includes overviews of major methods and movements associated with organizational change. Readers would best be served to read the following basic guidelines as foundation for carrying out any of the methods associated with organizational change.)<br />In addition to the general guidelines listed above, there are a few other basic guidelines to keep in mind. <br />1. Consider using a consultant. Ensure the consultant is highly experienced in organization-wide change. Ask to see references and check the references. <br />2. Widely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate what you're doing about it. Communicate what was done and how it worked out. <br />3. Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are the problems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team of employees to manage the change.<br />4. Don't get wrapped up in doing change for the sake of change. Know why you're making the change. What goal(s) do you hope to accomplish?<br />6. Plan the change. How do you plan to reach the goals, what will you need to reach the goals, how long might it take and how will you know when you've reached your goals or not? Focus on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not on each part by itself. Have someone in charge of the plan.<br />7. End up having every employee ultimately reporting to one person, if possible, and they should know who that person is. Job descriptions are often complained about, but they are useful in specifying who reports to whom.<br />8. Delegate decisions to employees as much as possible. This includes granting them the authority and responsibility to get the job done. As much as possible, let them decide how to do the project.<br />9. The process won't be an "aha!" It will take longer than you think. <br />10. Keep perspective. Keep focused on meeting the needs of your customer or clients. <br />11. Take care of yourself first. Organization-wide change can be highly stressful. <br />12. Don't seek to control change, but rather to expect it, understand it and manage it. <br />13. Include closure in the plan. Acknowledge and celebrate your accomplishments.<br />14. Read some resources about organizational change, including new forms and structures.<br /><br /><br />Adapted from “Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development” – to obtain the entire<br />book, select “Publications” at http://www.authenticityconsulting.com<br />Copyright, Authenticity Consulting, LLC 174<br />Major Types of Organizational Change<br />Typically, the phrase “organizational change” is about a significant change in the organization, such<br />as reorganization or adding a major new product or service. This is in contrast to smaller changes,<br />such as adopting a new computer procedure. Organizational change can seem like such a vague<br />phenomena that it is helpful if you can think of change in terms of various dimensions as described<br />below.<br />Organization-wide Versus Subsystem Change<br />Examples of organization-wide change might be a major restructuring, collaboration or “rightsizing.”<br />Usually, organizations must undertake organization-wide change to evolve to a different<br />level in their life cycle, for example, going from a highly reactive, entrepreneurial organization to<br />one that has a more stable and planned development. Experts assert that successful organizational<br />change requires a change in culture – cultural change is another example of organization-wide<br />change.<br />Examples of a change in a subsystem might include addition or removal of a product or service,<br />reorganization of a certain department, or implementation of a new process to deliver products or<br />services.<br />Transformational Versus Incremental Change<br />An example of transformational (or radical, fundamental) change might be changing an<br />organization’s structure and culture from the traditional top-down, hierarchical structure to a large<br />amount of self-directing teams. Another example might be Business Process Re-engineering, which<br />tries to take apart (at least on paper, at first) the major parts and processes of the organization and<br />then put them back together in a more optimal fashion. Transformational change is sometimes<br />referred to as quantum change.<br />Examples of incremental change might include continuous improvement as a quality management<br />process or implementation of new computer system to increase efficiencies. Many times,<br />organizations experience incremental change and its leaders do not recognize the change as such.<br />Remedial Versus Developmental Change<br />Change can be intended to remedy current situations, for example, to improve the poor performance<br />of a product or the entire organization, reduce burnout in the workplace, help the organization to<br />become much more proactive and less reactive, or address large budget deficits. Remedial projects<br />often seem more focused and urgent because they are addressing a current, major problem. It is<br />often easier to determine the success of these projects because the problem is solved or not.<br />Change can also be developmental – to make a successful situation even more successful, for<br />example, expand the amount of customers served, or duplicate successful products or services.<br />Developmental projects can seem more general and vague than remedial, depending on how specific<br />goals are and how important it is for members of the organization to achieve those goals.<br />Some people might have different perceptions of what is a remedial change versus a developmental<br />change. They might see that if developmental changes are not made soon, there will be need for<br />remedial changes. Also, organizations may recognize current remedial issues and then establish a<br />Adapted from “Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development” – to obtain the entire<br />book, select “Publications” at http://www.authenticityconsulting.com<br />Copyright; Authenticity Consulting, LLC 175<br />developmental vision to address the issues. In those situations, projects are still remedial because<br />they were conducted primarily to address current issues.<br />Unplanned Versus Planned Change<br />Unplanned change usually occurs because of a major, sudden surprise to the organization, which<br />causes its members to respond in a highly reactive and disorganized fashion. Unplanned change<br />might occur when the Chief Executive Officer suddenly leaves the organization, significant public<br />relations problems occur, poor product performance quickly results in loss of customers, or other<br />disruptive situations arise.<br />Planned change occurs when leaders in the organization recognize the need for a major change and<br />proactively organize a plan to accomplish the change. Planned change occurs with successful<br />implementation of a Strategic Plan, plan for reorganization, or other implementation of a change of<br />this magnitude.<br />Note that planned change, even though based on a proactive and well-done plan, often does not<br />occur in a highly organized fashion. Instead, planned change tends to occur in more of a chaotic and<br />disruptive fashion than expected by participants.<br /><br />Adapted from “Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development” – to obtain the entire<br />book, select “Publications” at http://www.authenticityconsulting.com<br />Copyright; Authenticity Consulting, LLC 177<br />Requirements for Successful Organizational Change <br />Cummings and Worley (Organization Development and Change, 1995) describe a comprehensive,<br />five-phase, general process for managing change, including: 1) motivating change, 2) creating<br />vision, 3) developing political support, 4) managing the transition and 5) sustaining momentum.<br />That process seems suitable for organizing and describing general guidelines about managing<br />change. Whatever model you choose to use when guiding organizational change, that model should<br />include the priorities and areas of emphasis described in the following five phases of change. The<br />collaborative consulting model described integrates highlights from all of the five phases.<br />Motivating Change<br />This phase includes creating a readiness for change in your client organization and developing<br />approaches to overcome resistance to change. General guidelines for managing this phase include<br />enlightening members of the organization about the need for change, expressing the current status of<br />the organization and where it needs to be in the future, and developing realistic approaches about<br />how change might be accomplished. Next, organization leaders need to recognize that people in the<br />organization are likely to resist making major changes for a variety of reasons, including fear of the<br />unknown, inadequacy to deal with the change and whether the change will result in an adverse effect<br />on their jobs. People need to feel that their concerns are being heard. Leaders must widely<br />communicate the need for the change and how the change can be accomplished successfully.<br />Leaders must listen to the employees – people need to feel that the approach to change will include<br />their strong input and ongoing involvement.<br />Creating Vision<br />Leaders in the organization must articulate a clear vision that describes what the change effort is<br />striving to accomplish. Ideally, people in the organization have strong input to the creation of the<br />vision and how it can be achieved. The vision should clearly depict how the achievement of the<br />vision will improve the organization. It is critically important that people believe that the vision is<br />relevant and realistic. Research indicates that cynicism is increasing in organizations in regard to<br />change efforts. People do not want to hear the need for the latest “silver bullet” that will completely<br />turn the organization around and make things better for everyone all the time. They want to feel<br />respected enough by leaders to be involved and to work toward a vision that is realistic, yet<br />promising in the long run.<br />Often the vision is described in terms of overall outcomes (or changes) to be achieved by all or parts<br />of the organization, including associated goals and objectives to achieve the outcomes. Sometimes,<br />an overall purpose, or mission, is associated with the effort to achieve the vision, as well.<br />Developing Political Support<br />This phase of change management is often overlooked, yet it is the phase that often stops successful<br />change from occurring. Politics in organizations is about power. Power is important among<br />members of the organization when striving for the resources and influence necessary to successfully<br />carry out their jobs. Power is also important when striving to maintain jobs and job security. Power<br />usually comes from credibility, whether from strong expertise or integrity. Power also comes from<br />the authority of one’s position in the organization.<br />Some people have a strong negative reaction when talking about power because power often is<br />associated with negative applications, for example, manipulation, abuse or harassment. However,<br />Adapted from “Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development” – to obtain the entire<br />book, select “Publications” at http://www.authenticityconsulting.com<br />Copyright, Authenticity Consulting, LLC 178<br />power, like conflict, exists in all human interactions and is not always bad. It is how power and<br />conflict are used and managed that determine how power and conflict should be perceived.<br />Matters of power and politics are critically important to recognize and manage during organizational<br />change activities. Change often means shifts in power across management levels, functions and<br />groups. To be successful, the change effort must recruit the support of all key power players, for<br />example, senior management, subject matter experts and others who are recognized as having strong<br />expertise and integrity.<br />A strong mechanism for ensuring alignment of power with the change effort is to develop a network<br />of power-players who interact and count on each other to support and guide the change effort.<br />Means to manage power can include ensuring that all power-players are involved in recognizing the<br />need for change, developing the vision and methods to achieve the vision, and organization-wide<br />communication about the status of change. Any recommendations or concerns expressed by those in<br />power must be promptly recognized and worked through.<br />Managing Transition<br />This phase occurs when the organization works to make the actual transition from the current state to<br />the future state. In consultations, this phase usually is called implementation of the action plans.<br />The plans can include a wide variety of “interventions,” or activities designed to make a change in<br />the organization, for example, creating and/or modifying major structures and processes in the<br />organization. These changes might require ongoing coaching, training and enforcement of new<br />policies and procedures. In addition, means of effective change management must continue,<br />including strong, clear, ongoing communication about the need for the change, status of the change,<br />and solicitation of organization members’ continuing input to the change effort.<br />Ideally, the various actions are integrated into one overall Change Management Plan that includes<br />specific objectives, or milestones, that must be accomplished by various deadlines, along with<br />responsibilities for achieving each objective. Rarely are these plans implemented exactly as planned.<br />Thus, as important as developing the plan, is making the many ongoing adjustments to the plan with<br />key members of the organization, while keeping other members up-to-date about the changes and the<br />reasons for them.<br /><br />Sustaining Momentum<br />Often, the most difficult phase in managing change is this phase when leaders work to sustain the<br />momentum of the implementation and adjustment of plans. Change efforts can encounter a wide<br />variety of obstacles, for example, strong resistance from members of the organization, sudden<br />departure of a key leader in the organization, or a dramatic reduction in sales. Strong, visible,<br />ongoing support from top leadership is critically important to show overall credibility and<br />accountabilities in the change effort. Those participating in the change effort often require ongoing<br />support, often in the form of provision of resources, along with training and coaching. The role of<br />support cannot be minimized – despite its importance during organizational change, the role of<br />support is often forgotten. At this point in a consulting project, it may be wise for you to ensure you<br />have ongoing support (often from other consultants) that can provide you ongoing objectivity,<br />affirmation, provision of resources and other forms of support. Employee performance management<br />systems play a critical role in this phase of organizational change, including in setting goals, sharing<br />feedback about accomplishment of goals, rewarding behaviors that successfully achieve goals and accomplish change, and addressing performance issues.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-53119482633355215282008-10-02T17:10:00.000+04:302008-10-02T17:13:19.659+04:30Job Description and Job SpecificationJob descriptions<br /><br /><br /> are lists of the general tasks, or functions, and responsibilities of a position. Typically, they also include to whom the position reports, specifications such as the qualifications needed by the person in the job, salary range for the position, etc. Job descriptions are usually developed by conducting a job analysis, which includes examining the tasks and sequences of tasks necessary to perform the job. The analysis looks at the areas of knowledge and skills needed by the job. Note that a role is the set of responsibilities or expected results associated with a job. A job usually includes several roles<br />Possible Job Description Items<br /><br />Job Title<br />Human Resources Manager<br />Job Summary<br />Managing overall center process, insuring work high performance with zero mistakes and giving a detailed daily report to the general manager.<br />Job Duties<br />May also be called Tasks Performed; may be as lengthy as necessary to fully describe each essential duty or responsibility which comprises the employee's functions, generally starting with principal duties.<br />Roles and Responsibilities<br />Includes supervisory level, managerial requirements, and any working relationships.<br />The position that an Individual holds in the organization.<br />Job Specifications or Qualifications<br />may include education, experience-level, knowledge and skill sets, as well as any physical limitations (such as "able to lift 30 lbs").<br />Is the minimum requirements that is needed for the specific job, or position.<br />General Guidelines<br />Insure that the information concerning a position is as descriptive as possible to pull viable candidates and provide guidance to the interviewer(s) when sifting through applicants. These guidelines may include items which do not easily fit under other categories, but play a part in the performance of the job.<br />Key Role Interactions<br />Defines the people and/or departments which the position will be require to relate with in the course of the job. Though not necessarily an exhaustive list, certainly will provide both interviewer and applicant a basis of understanding when discussing past positions and potential responsibilities.<br />Professional Skills<br />Describes in enough detail the key ability sets and experiences which will be required from past positions to allow a new hire to function and perform the duties of the job from day one.<br />Interpersonal Skills<br />Defines the 'softer' skills and talents which make for a well-rounded and efficient employee, as well as effective worker, regardless of the position. These may include:<br />- Personal Attributes,<br />- General Business Skills,<br />- Leadership Skills.<br /><br /><br /><br />Job Specification<br /><br /><br />Job specification summarizes the human characteristics needed for satisfactory job completion. It tries to describe the key qualifications someone needs to perform the job successfully. It spells out the important attributes of a person in terms of education, experience, skills, knowledge and abilities (SKAs) to perform a particular job. The job specification is a logical outgrowth of a job description. For each job description, it is desirable to have a job specification. This helps the organization to find what kind of persons is needed to take up specific jobs. The personal attributes that are described through a job specification may be classified into three categories:<br /> Essential attributes: skills, knowledge and abilities (SKAs) a person must possess.<br /> Desirable attributes: qualifications a person ought to posses.<br /> Contra-indicators: attributes that will become a handicap to successful job performance.<br />A job specification can be developed by talking with the current jobholders about the attributes required to do the job satisfactorily. Opinions of supervisors could also be used as additional inputs. Checking the job needs of other organizations with similar jobs will also help in developing job specifications.<br />Job specification is useful in the selection process because it offers a clear set of qualifications for an individual to be hired for a specific job. Likewise, a well-written job specification offers a clear picture to new recruits of what they will be doing in the organizationMSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-82530023247733552142008-10-02T17:03:00.001+04:302008-10-02T17:10:33.787+04:30Organisational Culture NotesORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE<br /><br />One of the primary responsibilities of strategic leaders is to create and maintain the organizational characteristics that reward and encourage collective effort. Perhaps the most fundamental of these is organizational culture. But what do we really mean by organizational culture? What influence does it have on an organization? How does one go about building, influencing or changing an organization's culture?<br /><br />THE IMPACT OF CULTURE<br /><br />Why is culture so important to an organization? Edgar Schein, an MIT Professor of Management and author of Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View, suggests that an organization's culture develops to help it cope with its environment. Today, organizational leaders are confronted with many complex issues during their attempts to generate organizational achievement in VUCA environments. A leader's success will depend, to a great extent, upon understanding organizational culture.<br /><br />Schein contends that many of the problems confronting leaders can be traced to their inability to analyze and evaluate organizational cultures. Many leaders, when trying to implement new strategies or a strategic plan leading to a new vision, will discover that their strategies will fail if they are inconsistent with the organization's culture. A CEO, SES, political appointee, or flag officer who comes into an organization prepared to "shake the place up" and institute sweeping changes, often experiences resistance to changes and failure. Difficulties with organizational transformations arise from failures to analyze an organization's existing culture.<br /><br />WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?<br /><br />There is no single definition for organizational culture. The topic has been studied from a variety of perspectives ranging from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, to the applied disciplines of organizational behavior, management science, and organizational communication. Some of the definitions are listed below:<br /><br /> A set of common understandings around which action is organized, . . . finding expression in language whose nuances are peculiar to the group (Becker and Geer 1960).<br /><br /> A set of understandings or meanings shared by a group of people that are largely tacit among members and are clearly relevant and distinctive to the particular group which are also passed on to new members (Louis 1980).<br /><br /> A system of knowledge, of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating and acting . . . that serve to relate human communities to their environmental settings (Allaire and Firsirotu 1984).<br /><br />The deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are: learned responses to the group's problems of survival in its external environment and its problems of internal integration; are shared by members of an organization; that operate unconsciously; and that define in a basic "taken -for-granted" fashion in an organization's view of itself and its environment (Schein 1988).<br /><br />Any social system arising from a network of shared ideologies consisting of two components: substance-the networks of meaning associated with ideologies, norms, and values; and forms-the practices whereby the meanings are expressed, affirmed, and communicated to members (Trice and Beyer 1984).<br /><br />This sampling of definitions represents the two major camps that exist in the study of organizational culture and its "application strategies." The first camp views culture as implicit in social life. Culture is what naturally emerges as individuals transform themselves into social groups as tribes, communities, and ultimately, nations. The second camp represents the view that culture is an explicit social product arising from social interaction either as an intentional or unintentional consequence of behavior. In other words, culture is comprised of distinct observable forms (e.g., language, use of symbols, ceremonies, customs, methods of problem solving, use of tools or technology, and design of work settings) that groups of people create through social interaction and use to confront the broader social environment. (Wuthnow and Witten 1988). This second view of culture is most relevant to the analysis and evaluation of organizational culture and to cultural change strategies that leaders can employ to improve organizational performance.<br /><br />BEHAVIOR AND ARTIFACTS<br /><br />We can also characterize culture as consisting of three levels (Schein 1988). The most visible level is behavior and artifacts. This is the observable level of culture, and consists of behavior patterns and outward manifestations of culture: perquisites provided to executives, dress codes, level of technology utilized (and where it is utilized), and the physical layout of work spaces. All may be visible indicators of culture, but difficult to interpret. Artifacts and behavior also may tell us what a group is doing, but not why. One cartoon which captures this aspect shows two executives sitting at their desks in an office. Both have large billed black and white checked hats. One is saying to the other, "I don't know how it started, either. All I know is that it's part of our corporate culture."<br /><br />VALUES<br /><br />At the next level of culture are values. Values underlie and to a large extent determine behavior, but they are not directly observable, as behaviors are. There may be a difference between stated and operating values. People will attribute their behavior to stated values.<br /><br />ASSUMPTIONS AND BELIEFS<br /><br />To really understand culture, we have to get to the deepest level, the level of assumptions and beliefs. Schein contends that underlying assumptions grow out of values, until they become taken for granted and drop out of awareness. As the definition above states, and as the cartoon illustrates, people may be unaware of or unable to articulate the beliefs and assumptions forming their deepest level of culture.<br /><br />To understand culture, we must understand all three levels, a difficult task. One additional aspect complicates the study of culture: the group or cultural unit which "owns" the culture. An organization may have many different cultures or subcultures, or even no discernible dominant culture at the organizational level. Recognizing the cultural unit is essential to identifying and understanding the culture.<br /><br />Organizational cultures are created, maintained, or transformed by people. An organization's culture is, in part, also created and maintained by the organization's leadership. Leaders at the executive level are the principle source for the generation and re-infusion of an organization's ideology, articulation of core values and specification of norms. Organizational values express preferences for certain behaviors or certain outcomes. Organizational norms express behaviors accepted by others. They are culturally acceptable ways of pursuing goals. Leaders also establish the parameters for formal lines of communication and message content-the formal interaction rules for the organization. Values and norms, once transmitted through the organization, establish the permanence of the organization's culture.<br /><br />WHAT RELEVANCE DOES ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE HAVE TO LEADERS IN FEDERAL AGENCIES?<br /><br />One of the most perplexing issues facing leaders within the Department of Defense and other agencies of the federal government can be classified under one rubric-change. Government organizations' responses to events such as the "re-invention of government", downsizing and defense conversion, shrinking operating budgets, acquisition reform, and the military's expanded role in operations other than war are requiring leaders to make course corrections. Leaders in these organizations are being challenged to think differently, to:<br /><br /> * Reconceptualize the role their organization plays in government<br /> * Reconceptualize, the goals of their organization, and<br /> * Reconceptualize how people in their organizations will work together to achieve these goals.<br /><br />The term reconceptualize is emphasized here because the 21st century challenges for strategic leaders in this country involve interpreting what appears to be the same world in radically different ways. For example, not only must the Department of Defense work to make "jointness" achieve its potential, it must also reconceptualize how it can effectively operate with domestic and foreign civilian agencies in activities other than war. So DOD's goals of providing global deterrence and warfighting capability must be reconceptualized into simultaneously providing the capability for coalition building, peacekeeping, and humanitarian operations.<br /><br />Strategic leaders have an additional set of challenges. They have to create the means and the opportunities to infuse their employees with new ways of looking at themselves and their capabilities. Leaders' new ideologies and values need to be communicated effectively, internalized by employees, and then translated into productive methods of thinking and working. The useful techniques for overcoming these challenges fall within the domains of evaluating and transforming organizational cultures.<br /><br />ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IS ALSO A SYNTHESIS OF SUBCULTURES<br /><br />Sociologists Gary Fine and Sherryl Kleinman discuss how distinct societies are composites of interacting subcultures rather than a single overarching culture. Organizations consist of subgroups that have specific characteristics and a sense of identification. Within organizations, people can easily classify themselves and others into various social categories or groups based on identification with their primary work group, occupational or professional skills, union membership, or age cohort. (Ouchi 1980, and Ashforth and Mael 1989). Subgroups in organizations can and do create subcultures that comprise specific networks of meaning; yet, at the same time, they remain associated with the ideologies and values of the organization's leadership. For example, at a macro level the culture that is attributed to the Department of Defense comprises the distinct cultures of the different military services and the corps of civil servants assigned to each service agency (Builder 1989). A closer examination of each service culture reveals still greater cultural differentiation among occupational specialties, specific units within the service, and between line and staff personnel. Yet all of these subcultures adhere to the core ideologies, values and norms of the DOD.<br /><br />Numerous studies of organizational culture have highlighted that the formation and maintenance of culture requires interpersonal interaction within subgroups. For example, research led by Meryl Louis (Louis, Posner, and Powell 1983) demonstrated the benefits of subgroup interaction to newcomers "learning the ropes" of the jobs. Survey respondents in their first job experience reported that the three most important socialization aids were:<br /><br /> * Interaction with peers<br /> * Interaction with their supervisor<br /> * Interaction with senior co-workers.<br /><br />Interaction with peers on the job was viewed as most important in helping newcomers becoming effective employees. Interaction is important for the acculturation of newcomers. However, to get a grasp on how cultures are formed and promulgated we need to ask: "what is the content of interpersonal interaction in work settings?"<br /><br />Research conducted by John VanMaanan and Steven Barley (1984) provides some insight to this question. They discovered that the content of the interaction is behavioral and cognitive in nature. During initial interactions with newcomers, the established occupational community transmits to new members those shared occupational practices (including norms and roles), values, vocabularies and identities-all examples of the explicit social products that are indicative of culture in organizations. These findings were reinforced by Sonja Sackmann's research on subcultures in a medium sized conglomerate in the United States. She found that subcultures were found to form on the basis of functional domains; principally in their biased knowledge of events in the organization, in their biased explanations of cause and effect relationships, and in their patterns of behavior. The conglomerate's production division consisted of three subcultures: electronics production, shop floor production, and product inspection. Sackmann reported:<br /><br /> Each subgroup was influenced by the nature of its particular work. This "local" orientation also differentiated each group from the others. All three groupings clearly distinguished between "we" and "them". This distinction was supported by my observations of them. They dressed differently, and they worked in distinctly different work spaces that were furnished differently. They took separate breaks during the day, and the tone in which they interacted varied it its degree of roughness. The electronics group talked about "job security," "a small company," and "health and dental insurance." The shop floor production group talked about "more work," "upgrade of assembly," and "being in control of the job." [Discussion] themes in the shop floor production group were oriented toward people, growth in the division/company, and strategy. The inspection group mentioned an "expanded inspection department," "improvements in quality control," the "quality control system," or "partnership." Some [other discussion] themes in the group were growth of the division/company and orientation toward people (Sackmann 1992).<br /><br />Organizations do not, however, always have homogeneous subcultures. The explicit social products produced by subcultures within organizations can be widely diverse and even result in countercultures. Such was the case of the Army Air Forces as its early proponents, such as Brig. General Billy Mitchell, tried to assert the value of airpower against the resistance of the traditional warfighting cultures of the Army and the Navy. The culmination of the airpower counter culture's assertiveness, both through word and deed resulted in the formation of the Air Force as a separate service in 1947. Similar examples of military counter cultures also exist in the Navy (e.g., Admiral Rickover's nuclear submarine counterculture) and the Army (e.g., General Hutton's skunkworks that created the armed helicopter)(Zald and Berger 1978).<br /><br />In a more contemporary example, researchers Joanne Martin and Caren Siehl from Stanford University (1983) conducted an analysis of the events and stories related to John Delorean's tenure as division head at General Motors. They concluded that Delorean created a subculture counter to the corporate GM culture based in the core values of loyalty, hierarchy, and conformity. Executives were expected to show deferential respect for authority and accept deferential treatment from subordinates; openly express loyalty to the corporation; and to be conservative in their choices of wardrobe and office decoration.<br /><br />Delorean took steps to create a counter culture that would try to force innovations when he could not get his ideas accepted by his superiors. Capitalizing on the support of his followers, Delorean and his people expressed a new culture with an alternative set of core values, preferring productivity to deference, objective measures of performance to subjective measures of conformity, and independence to blind loyalty. They dressed in contemporary styles, redecorated their offices in bright bold colors and modern furniture, and discarded GM's bureaucratic procedures for streamlined decision making processes. Delorean also refused to participate in the ceremonies and rituals of deference that were widely practiced in the corporation. As an ultimate rejection of GM's core values, Delorean attacked a GM icon, the Corvair (before Ralph Nader) for faulty construction, its unsafe performance and persistent maintenance problems. For a while, Delorean was able to maintain a delicate balance within the dominant culture's latitude of tolerance, but eventually met with disfavor; he was asked to leave the company and the counter culture disintegrated.<br /><br />These examples illustrate that countercultures can have both productive and unproductive outcomes. Perhaps the key to a counterculture's success (i.e., the promulgation of its ideology, values and norms) is the group's ability to demonstrate how its idiosyncrasies are consonant with the core ideologies, values and norms of the dominant culture. The counter cultures in the military services still possessed the ethos of warfighters, albeit through different forms of warfighting technology. Overtime, the strategic bomber, the nuclear submarine, and the attack helicopter were embraced by their respective service cultures. The Delorean analysis illustrates how counter cultures can be dysfunctional and ultimately extinguished when they advocate a complete rejection of the dominant culture's ideology, values, and norms.<br /><br />THE SYMBIOSIS BETWEEN THE ORGANIZATION'S OVERALL CULTURE AND ITS SUBCULTURES<br /><br />Some people may debate which comes first in an organization: the organizational culture or the organization's subcultures. The question that is relevant to this chapter is how do the ideologies, values, and norms of subcultures compliment the organizational culture advocated by leadership? Explaining this relationship requires an understanding that cultures provide members with a reliable means to interpret a highly ambiguous environment. It is the leader's responsibility to specify the features of the environment that are relevant to the organization and then provide the supporting assumptions and rationale for its operating strategies.<br /><br />The leader's cultural messages should address ambiguities that are beyond the scope of any organizational subculture to explain to employees. Returning to Sonja Sackmann's research with a U.S. conglomerate, she found that the top management team "defined and framed the slice of reality in which organizational members behaved in their role as employees." Top management consistently made highly visible business and personnel decisions that reinforced the business' ideologies, values and norms for success. Her interviews throughout the organization revealed that the functional subcultures shared the top manager's conceptualizations of how tasks were accomplished in the organization; how employees could advance; the ways employees related to each other; the ways adaptation and change were accomplished; and how new knowledge was acquired and perpetuated. The bottom line is that distinct subcultures in the organization were united in their understanding of how they had to perform to produce successful organizational outcomes.<br /><br />Sackmann's findings provide important insight for leaders who are trying to influence organizational culture in light of the potential influence of organizational subcultures. Leaders should recognize that their cultural messages should specifically address cultural ambiguities associated with subculture practices within the organization, and limit their attempts to eliminate distinctions that are important to subculture's identities. In other words, leaders have a better chance of creating or transforming an organizational culture if they accept and foster productive organizational subcultures and consistently communicate how employees must perform in order for the organization to achieve its objectives.<br /><br />Cultural change then relies on leaders' communication techniques that cross subcultural boundaries and carry messages about ideologies, values and norms that can be internalized by all employees. Memos and vision statements cannot achieve all of these objectives. Leaders, however, have a variety of sophisticated cultural communication techniques at their disposal to link subcultures to overarching cultural objectives of their organizations.<br /><br />CULTURAL FORMS AS LINKING MECHANISMS<br /><br />Cultural forms function as the linking mechanism by which networks of understanding develop among employees. (Trice, 1988) The cultural forms shown in the table on pages 293-94 act as a medium for communicating ideologies, values, and norms. Cultural forms enable leaders to transmit messages about desirable culture to influence thinking and ways of behaving. Cultural forms also address the emotional aspects of organizations that are commonly referred to as cohesion or camaraderie. Organizational scholars Janice Beyer and Harrison Trice elaborate on this point:<br /><br />Cultural forms not only aid sensemaking through the meanings they convey; they also aid the sensemaking process through the emotional reassurances they provide that help people persist in their coping efforts. Forms provide a concrete anchoring point, even if the meaning they carry are vague and only imperfectly transmitted....Also many cultural forms involve the expression of emotion and, by this venting of emotions, help people to cope with stress.<br /><br /> Federal agencies are replete with cultural forms that serve these purposes. However the challenges facing strategic leaders of these agencies involve creating and orchestrating cultural forms that can foster change and have longevity beyond their tenure. Cultural forms that have longevity by their nature such as rites and ceremonies reaffirm the organization's core ideologies, values and norms.<br /><br />HOW CAN LEADERS DETECT DESIRABLE AND UNDESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?<br /><br />Productive cultural change will occur if leaders correctly analyze the organization's existing culture, and evaluate it against the cultural attributes needed to achieve strategic objectives. Consequently, leaders must first possess a clear understanding of the strategic objectives for their organization and identify the actions needed to reach those objectives. These two tasks by themselves are difficult, particularly for the federal agencies that are experiencing volatile rates of change and reorientation. Nevertheless, without these specifications, any cultural transformation is a blind exercise.<br /><br />Next conduct an analysis of the organizations existing ideologies, values and norms. Two critical questions that leaders should ask are: (1) Are existing explanations of cause and effect relationships, and acceptable beliefs and behaviors applicable to the organization's achievement of strategic objectives? (2) Are organizational members facing ambiguities about the external environment and internal work processes that can only be clarified by organizational leadership?<br /><br />FORMULATING STRATEGIES FOR TRANSFORMING CULTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS<br /><br />Strategic leadership needs to be transformational if it is to serve the organization. Transformational leaders must operate from a foundation of high morality and ethical practices and<br /><br />A List of Definitions that Distinguish<br /><br />Frequently Studied Cultural Forms<br />Rite Relatively elaborate, dramatic, planned sets of activities that consolidates various forms of cultural expressions into one event, which is carried out through social interactions, usually for the benefit of an audience.<br />Ceremonial A system of several rites connected with a single occasion or event.<br />Ritual A standardized, detailed set of techniques and behaviors that manage anxieties, but seldom produce intended, technical consequences of practical importance.<br />Myth A dramatic narrative of imagined events, usually used to explain origins of transformations of something . Also, an unquestioned belief about the practical benefits of certain techniques and behaviors that is not supported by demonstrated facts.<br />Saga An historical narrative describing the unique accomplishments of a group and its leaders-usually in heroic terms.<br />Legend A handed-down narrative of some wonderful event that is based in history but has been embellished with fictional details.<br />Story A narrative based on true events-often a combination of truth and fiction<br />Folktale A completely fictional narrative.<br />Symbol Any object, act, event, quality, or relation that serves as a vehicle for conveying meaning, usually by representing another thing.<br />Language A particular form or manner in which members of a group use vocal sounds and written signs to convey meanings to each other.<br />Gesture Movements of parts of the body used to express meanings.<br />Physical Those things than surround people physically setting and provide them with immediate sensory stimuli as they carry out culturally expressive activities.<br />Artifact Material objects manufactured by people to facilitate culturally expressive activities.<br /><br />Adapted from Trice, 1984.<br /><br />have a fundamental understanding of the highly complex factors that support and make possible collective effort in an organization. They must personally act in accord with productive values and beliefs, and they must teach others to do the same. They must promulgate the culture. The key method strategy leaders should follow to transform cultures is to teach symbolically. This type of strategy involves the artful crafting of new stories, new symbols, new traditions, and even new humor so that the ambiguities surrounding organizational life can be productively managed by all members of the organization. Without collective understanding-shared networks of revised meaning- the new ways of acting and thinking cannot be internalized by organizational members.<br /><br />Culture is deep seated and difficult to change, but leaders can influence or manage an organization's culture. It isn't easy, and it cannot be done rapidly, but leaders can have an effect on culture. Schein outlines some specific steps leaders can employ: <br /><br /> * What leaders pay attention to, measure and control. Something as simple as what is emphasized or measured, over time, can have an effect on an organization's culture. One example of this is an emphasis on form over substance. If leaders pay more attention to form, an organizational culture can develop where people start to believe that the substance of a recommendation is less important than the way it is presented. One can recall when more attention was paid to the format of viewgraphs used in a briefing than what was said; what we characterize as "eyewash."<br /> * Where do you think people will focus their effort once it becomes accepted that a slick presentation is what the leaders are looking for? How could you go about changing that aspect of the organization's culture? Consider cultural assumptions and beliefs underlying a "zero defects" organizational mentality. "You must always be perfect; mistakes aren't allowed." If this assumption reflects a dysfunctional aspect of an organization's culture, how would you go about changing that perception?<br /> * Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises. The way leaders react to crises says a lot about the organization's values, norms and culture. Crises, by their nature, bring out the organization's underlying core values. Often, this is where rhetoric becomes apparent. Reactions to crises are normally highly visible, because everyone's attention is focused on the incident or situation. Disconnects between actions and words will usually be apparent, and actions always speak louder than words. Additionally, a crisis not only brings a great deal of attention, it also generates a great deal of emotional involvement on the part of those associated with the organization, particularly if the crisis threatens the organization's survival. This increases the potential for either reinforcing the existing culture, or leading to a change in the culture. Such a crisis can provide an opportunity for a leader to influence the organization's culture in either a positive or a negative way.<br /> * Deliberate role modeling, teaching, and coaching. Nothing can take the place of leaders "walking their talk." The personal example of a strategic leader can send a powerful message to the members of an organization, particularly if it is ethical and consistent. Reinforcing that example with teaching and coaching will help others to internalize the desired values.<br /> * Criteria for allocation of rewards and status. The consequences of behavior-what behavior is rewarded and what is punished-can significantly influence culture. If the organization reacts to new ideas by ridiculing the ideas and those who propose them, it won't take long before people believe that new ideas are not welcomed or desired. One belief of perceived organizational culture is reflected in the statement: "Don't raise questions or suggest improvements, because nothing will come of it and you will just get in trouble." If you were in an organization's strategic leader, what steps could you take to alter the reward system to change this aspect of the culture?<br /> * Criteria for recruitment, selection, promotion, retirement and excommunication. One of the powerful ways of changing an organization's culture is through the type of people brought into, retained, and advanced in the organization. You should be able to establish a desired culture base in an organization by bringing in and advancing individuals with the values you want, and eliminating those with undesired value bases.<br /><br /> That is what organizations are attempting when they propose tightening up admissions standards to screen out undesirables. This strategy is consistent with the belief that the problems experienced by the organization result from a few "bad apples" and do not reflect systemic problems. However, if a strong culture bias exists, it may be too strong to be changed by selection alone.<br /><br /> The military academies are organizations which change over one fourth of their membership every year, which should provide an opportunity for changes to the organizational culture as new members are brought in. The catch, however, is that the socialization of those new members rests in the hands of those who are already part of the existing culture. How could the military academies make systemic culture changes not negated by the socialization process new members go through?<br /><br /> * Organizational design and structure. As we mentioned earlier, modifying the organization's basic structure may be a way of changing the existing norms, and hence the culture. For example, a culture of mistrust between the leaders and the members of an organization may be exacerbated by a "line" structure that discourages vertical communication.<br /> * Organizational systems and procedures. The simplest definition of culture is "that's the way we do things around here." Routines or procedures can become so embedded that they become part of the culture, and changing the culture necessitates changing those routines. We can all think of organizations where a weekly or monthly meeting takes on a life of its own, becomes more formalized, lengthy, and elaborate, and becomes the only way information moves within the organization. Changing the culture to improve communication may only be possible by changing the meeting procedures or eliminating the meetings altogether.<br /> * Design of physical space, facades, and buildings. The impact of the design of buildings on culture can easily be illustrated by considering the executive perks in an organization. Which organization do you think will have a more open and participative culture, one where top executives have reserved parking spaces, top floor offices, a special elevator and an executive dining room, or one where the executive offices are not separated from the rest of the company and executives park and eat in the same place as their employees?<br /> * Stories about important events and people. This is a way that culture is perpetuated in an organization, in that it helps define and solidify the organization's identity. By what events and stories they emphasize, leaders influence that identity.<br /> * Formal statements of organizational philosophy, creeds, and charts. This is the way leaders most often try and influence their organizations, and encompasses the vision or mission statement and statements of the organization's (or the leader's) values and philosophy. By themselves, however, formal statements will have little effect on the organization's culture. They must be linked to actions to affect culture.<br /><br /> Schein has five guidelines for the leader:<br /><br />1. Don't oversimplify culture or confuse it with climate, values, or corporate philosophy. Culture underlies and largely determines these other variables. Trying to change values or climate without getting at the underlying culture will be a futile effort.<br /><br />2. Don't label culture as solely a human resources (read "touchy-feely") aspect of an organization, affecting only its human side. The impact of culture goes far beyond the human side of the organization to affect and influence its basic mission and goals.<br /><br />3. Don't assume that the leader can manipulate culture as he or she can control many other aspects of the organization. Culture, because it is largely determined and controlled by the members of the organization, not the leaders, is different. Culture may end up controlling the leader rather than being controlled by him or her.<br /><br />4. Don't assume that there is a "correct" culture, or that a strong culture is better than a weak one. It should be apparent that different cultures may fit different organizations and their environments, and that the desirability of a strong culture depends on how well it supports the organization's strategic goals and objectives.<br /><br />5. Don't assume that all the aspects of an organization's culture are important, or will have a major impact on the functioning of the organization. Some elements of an organization's culture may have little impact on its functioning, and the leader must distinguish which elements are important, and focus on those.<br /><br />CONCLUDING THOUGHT<br /><br />An understanding of culture, and how to transform it, is a crucial skill for leaders trying to achieve strategic outcomes. Strategic leaders have the best perspective, because of their position in the organization, to see the dynamics of the culture, what should remain, and what needs transformation. This is the essence of strategic success.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-74600547572712226412008-09-20T12:14:00.000+04:302008-09-20T12:15:34.777+04:30End semester Time tableI P.G. END SEMESTER University Examination<br />(Freshers & Repeaters): Oct/Nov - 2008<br /> Time : 9.30 – 12.30 PM<br />Date & Day MSW<br />28.10.2008 Tuesday Social Work Profession and Philosophy & Ideologies<br />30.10.2008 Thursday Sociology for Social Workers<br />3.11.2008 Monday Social Case Work<br />5.11.2008 Wednesday Social Group Work<br />III P.G. END SEMESTER<br />Examination(Freshers & Repeaters) : Oct -2008<br /> Time : 1.30 – 4.30 PM<br />Date & Day MSW<br />14.10.2008 Tuesday Communication for Social Workers<br />16.10.2008 Thursday Organisational Behaviour<br />18.10.2008 Saturday Elective:<br />● Medical Social Work<br />● Rural Community Development<br />● Human Resources Development<br />23.10.2008 Thursday Elective:<br />● Psychiatric Social Work<br />● Urban Community Development<br />● Labour LegislationMSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-74903703454704681192008-08-14T14:59:00.000+04:302008-08-14T15:00:52.374+04:30A Must ReadKeep the Spark<br /><br />Inaugural Speech by Chetan Bhagat for the new batch at the Symbiosis BBA Program 2008<br /><br />Good Morning everyone and thank you for giving me this chance to speak to you. This day is about you. You, who have come to this college, leaving the comfort of your homes (or in some cases discomfort), to become something in your life. I am sure you are excited. There are few days in human life when one is truly elated. The first day in college is one of them. When you were getting ready today, you felt a tingling in your stomach. What would the auditorium be like, what would the teachers be like, who are my new classmates - there is so much to be curious about. I call this excitement, the spark within you that makes you feel truly alive today. Today I am going to talk about keeping the spark shining. Or to put it another way, how to be happy most, if not all the time.<br /><br />Where do these sparks start? I think we are born with them. My 3-year old twin boys have a million sparks. A little Spiderman toy can make them jump on the bed. They get thrills from creaky swings in the park. A story from daddy gets them excited. They do a daily countdown for birthday party - several months in advance - just for the day they will cut their own birthday cake.<br /><br />I see students like you, and I still see some sparks. But when I see older people, the spark is difficult to find.. That means as we age, the<br />spark fades. People whose spark has faded too much are dull, dejected, aimless and bitter. Remember Kareena in the first half of Jab We Met vs the second half? That is what happens when the spark is lost. So how to save the spark?<br /><br />Imagine the spark to be a lamp's flame. The first aspect is nurturing - to give your spark the fuel, continuously. The second is to guard against storms.<br /><br />To nurture, always have goals. It is human nature to strive, improve and achieve full potential. In fact, that is success. It is what is possible for you. It isn't any external measure - a certain cost to company pay package, a particular car or house.<br /><br />Most of us are from middle class families. To us, having material landmarks is success and rightly so. When you have grown up where money constraints force everyday choices, financial freedom is a big achievement.<br /><br />But it isn't the purpose of life. If that was the case, Mr Ambani would not show up for work. Shah Rukh Khan would stay at home and not dance anymore. Steve Jobs won't be working hard to make a better iPhone, as he sold Pixar for billions of dollars already. Why do they do it? What makes them come to work everyday?<br /><br />They do it because it makes them happy. They do it because it makes them feel alive. Just getting better from current levels feels good. If you study hard, you can improve your rank. If you make an effort to interact with people, you will do better in interviews. If you practice, your cricket will get better. You may also know that you cannot become Tendulkar, yet. But you can get to the next level. Striving for that next level is important.<br /><br />Nature designed with a random set of genes and circumstances in which we were born. To be happy, we have to accept it and make the most of nature's design. Are you? Goals will help you do that.<br /><br />I must add, don't just have career or academic goals. Set goals to give you a balanced, successful life. I use the word balanced before successful. Balanced means ensuring your health, relationships, mental peace are all in good order.<br /><br />There is no point of getting a promotion on the day of your breakup. There is no fun in driving a car if your back hurts. Shopping is not enjoyable if your mind is full of tensions.<br /><br />You must have read some quotes - Life is a tough race, it is a marathon or whatever. No, from what I have seen so far, life is one of those races in nursery school. Where you have to run with a marble in a spoon kept in your mouth. If the marble falls, there is no point coming first. Same with life, where health and relationships are the marble. Your striving is only worth it if there is harmony in your life. Else, you may achieve the success, but this spark, this feeling of being excited and alive, will start to die.<br /><br />One last thing about nurturing the spark - don't take life seriously. One of my yoga teachers used to make students laugh during classes. One student asked him if these jokes would take away something from the yoga practice. The teacher said - don't be serious, be sincere. This quote has defined my work ever since. Whether its my writing, my job, my relationships or any of my goals. I get thousands of opinions on my writing everyday. There is heaps of praise, there is intense criticism. <br />If I take it all seriously, how will I write? Or rather, how will I live? Life is not to be taken seriously, as we are really temporary here. We are like a pre-paid card with limited validity. If we are lucky, we may last another 50 years. And 50 years is just 2,500 weekends. Do we really need to get so worked up? It's ok, bunk a few classes, goof up a few interviews, fall in love. We are people, not programmed devices.<br /><br />I've told you three things - reasonable goals, balance and not taking it too seriously that will nurture the spark. However, there are four storms in life that will threaten to completely put out the flame. These must be guarded against. These are disappointment, frustration, unfairness and loneliness of purpose. <br /><br />Disappointment will come when your effort does not give you the expected return. If things don't go as planned or if you face failure. Failure is extremely difficult to handle, but those that do come out stronger. What did this failure teach me? This is the question you will need to ask. You will feel miserable. You will want to quit, like I wanted to when nine publishers rejected my first book. Some IITians kill themselves over low grades - how silly is that? But that is how much failure can hurt you.<br /><br />But it's life. If challenges could always be overcome, they would cease to be a challenge. And remember - if you are failing at something, that means you are at your limit or potential. And that's where you want to be.<br /><br />Disappointment's cousin is frustration, the second storm. Have you ever been frustrated? It happens when things are stuck. This is especially relevant in India. From traffic jams to getting that job you deserve, sometimes things take so long that you don't know if you chose the right goal. After books, I set the goal of writing for Bollywood, as I thought they needed writers. I am called extremely lucky, but it took me five years to get close to a release.<br /><br />Frustration saps excitement, and turns your initial energy into something negative, making you a bitter person. How did I deal with it? <br />A realistic assessment of the time involved - movies take a long time to make even though they are watched quickly, seeking a certain enjoyment in the process rather than the end result - at least I was learning how to write scripts, having a side plan - I had my third book to write and even something as simple as pleasurable distractions in your life - friends, food, travel can help you overcome it. Remember, nothing is to be taken seriously. Frustration is a sign somewhere, you took it too seriously.<br /><br />Unfairness - this is hardest to deal with, but unfortunately that is how our country works. People with connections, rich dads, beautiful faces, pedigree find it easier to make it - not just in Bollywood, but everywhere. And sometimes it is just plain luck. There are so few opportunities in India, so many stars need to be aligned for you to make it happen. Merit and hard work is not always linked to achievement in the short term, but the long term correlation is high, and ultimately things do work out. But realize, there will be some people luckier than you.<br /><br />In fact, to have an opportunity to go to college and understand this speech in English means you are pretty damn lucky by Indian standards. <br />Let's be grateful for what we have and get the strength to accept what we don't. I have so much love from my readers that other writers cannot even imagine it. However, I don't get literary praise. It's ok. I don't look like Aishwarya Rai, but I have two boys who I think are more beautiful than her. It's ok. Don't let unfairness kill your spark.<br /><br />Finally, the last point that can kill your spark is isolation. As you grow older you will realize you are unique. When you are little, all kids want Ice cream and Spiderman. As you grow older to college, you still are a lot like your friends. But ten years later and you realize you are unique. What you want, what you believe in, what makes you feel, may be different from even the people closest to you. This can create conflict as your goals may not match with others. . And you may drop some of them. Basketball captains in college invariably stop playing basketball by the time they have their second child. They give up something that meant so much to them. They do it for their family. But in doing that, the spark dies.. Never, ever make that compromise. Love yourself first, and then others.<br /><br />There you go. I've told you the four thunderstorms - disappointment, frustration, unfairness and isolation. You cannot avoid them, as like the monsoon they will come into your life at regular intervals. You just need to keep the raincoat handy to not let the spark die.<br /><br />I welcome you again to the most wonderful years of your life. If someone gave me the choice to go back in time, I will surely choose college. But I also hope that ten years later as well, you eyes will shine the same way as they do today. That you will Keep the Spark alive, not only through college, but through the next 2,500 weekends. And I hope not just you, but my whole country will keep that spark alive, as we really need it now more than any moment in history. And there is something cool about saying - I come from the land of a billion sparks.<br /><br />Thank You.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-53107502489843147692008-04-08T09:41:00.000+04:302008-04-08T09:42:36.388+04:30Research Notes - SAMPLING<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling In Research<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mugo Fridah W.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">INTRODUCTION <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This tutorial is a discussion on sampling in research it is mainly designed to eqiup beginners with knowledge on the general issues on sampling that is the purpose of sampling in research, dangers of sampling and how to minimize them, types of sampling and guides for deciding the sample size. For a clear flow of ideas, a few definitions of the terms used are given. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What is research? <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">According Webster(1985), to research is to search or investigate exhaustively. It is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws, it can also be the collection of information about a particular subject. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What is a sample? <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole(Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of respondents(people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement for example a population of presidents or professors, books or students. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What is sampling? Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What is the purpose of sampling? To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which enables us to determine a population`s characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census ) of the population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the whole, but we should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. In this tutorial, we will investigate various kinds of sampling procedures. Some are better than others but all may yield samples that are inaccurate and unreliable. We will learn how to minimize these dangers, but some potential error is the price we must pay for the convenience and savings the samples provide. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There would be no need for statistical theory if a census rather than a sample was always used to obtain information about populations. But a census may not be practical and is almost never economical. There are six main reasons for sampling instead of doing a census. These are; -Economy -Timeliness -The large size of many populations -Inaccessibility of some of the population -Destructiveness of the observation -accuracy <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The economic advantage of using a sample in research Obviously, taking a sample requires fewer resources than a census. For example, let us assume that you are one of the very curious students around. You have heard so much about the famous Cornell and now that you are there, you want to hear from the insiders. You want to know what all the students at Cornell think about the quality of teaching they receive, you know that all the students are different so they are likely to have different perceptions and you believe you must get all these perceptions so you decide because you want an indepth view of every student, you will conduct personal interviews with each one of them and you want the results in 20 days only, let us assume this particular time you are doing your research Cornell has only 20,000 students and those who are helping are so fast at the interviewing art that together you can interview at least 10 students per person per day in addition to your 18 credit hours of course work. You will require 100 research assistants for 20 days and since you are paying them minimum wage of $5.00 per hour for ten hours ($50.00) per person per day, you will require $100000.00 just to complete the interviews, analysis will just be impossible. You may decide to hire additional assistants to help with the analysis at another $100000.00 and so on assuming you have that amount on your account.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">As unrealistic as this example is, it does illustrate the very high cost of census. For the type of information desired, a small wisely selected sample of Cornell students can serve the purpose. You don`t even have to hire a single assistant. You can complete the interviews and analysis on your own. Rarely does a circustance require a census of the population, and even more rarely does one justify the expense. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The time factor. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A sample may provide you with needed information quickly. For example, you are a Doctor and a disease has broken out in a village within your area of jurisdiction, the disease is contagious and it is killing within hours nobody knows what it is. You are required to conduct quick tests to help save the situation. If you try a census of those affected, they may be long dead when you arrive with your results. In such a case just a few of those already infected could be used to provide the required information. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The very large populations<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Many populations about which inferences must be made are quite large. For example, Consider the population of high school seniors in United States of America, agroup numbering 4,000,000. The responsible agency in the government has to plan for how they will be absorbed into the differnt departments and even the private sector. The employers would like to have specific knowledge about the student`s plans in order to make compatiple plans to absorb them during the coming year. But the big size of the population makes it physically impossible to conduct a census. In such a case, selecting a representative sample may be the only way to get the information required from high school seniors. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The partly accessible populations<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are Some populations that are so difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used. Like people in prison, like crashed aeroplanes in the deep seas, presidents e.t.c. The inaccessibility may be economic or time related. Like a particular study population may be so costly to reach like the population of planets that only a sample can be used. In other cases, a population of some events may be taking too long to occur that only sample information can be relied on. For example natural disasters like a flood that occurs every 100 years or take the example of the flood that occured in Noah`s days. It has never occured again. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The destructive nature of the observation Sometimes the very act of observing the desired charecteristic of a unit of the population destroys it for the intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality control. For example to test the quality of a fuse, to determine whether it is defective, it must be destroyed. To obtain a census of the quality of a lorry load of fuses, you have to destroy all of them. This is contrary to the purpose served by quality-control testing. In this case, only a sample should be used to assess the quality of the fuses<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Accuracy and sampling A sample may be more accurate than a census. A sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable information than a carefully obtained sample.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">BIAS AND ERROR IN SAMPLING A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the population from which it comes. Chance may dictate that a disproportionate number of untypical observations will be made like for the case of testing fuses, the sample of fuses may consist of more or less faulty fuses than the real population proportion of faulty cases. In practice, it is rarely known when a sample is unrepresentative and should be discarded. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling error <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">What can make a sample unrepresentative of its population? One of the most frequent causes is sampling error. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">For example, suppose that a sample of 100 american women are measured and are all found to be taller than six feet. It is very clear even without any statistical prove that this would be a highly unrepresentative sample leading to invalid conclusions. This is a very unlikely occurance because naturally such rare cases are widely distributed among the population. But it can occur. Luckily, this is a very obvious error and can be etected very easily. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The more dangerous error is the less obvious sampling error against which nature offers very little protection. An example would be like a sample in which the average height is overstated by only one inch or two rather than one foot which is more obvious. It is the unobvious error that is of much concern. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are two basic causes for sampling error. One is chance: That is the error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. For example, in a recent study in which I was looking at the number of trees, I selected a sample of households randomly but strange enough, the two households in the whole population, which had the highest number of trees (10,018 and 6345 ) were both selected making the sample average higher than it should be. The average with these two extremes removed was 828 trees. The main protection agaisnt this kind of error is to use a large enough sample. The second cause of sampling is sampling bias. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have paticular characteristics. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample. For example, take a hypothetical case where a survey was conducted recently by Cornell Graduate school to find out the level of stress that graduate students were going through. A mail questionnaire was sent to 100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 responded and the results were that students were not under strees at that time when the actual case was that it was the highest time of stress for all students except those who were writing their thesis at their own pace. Apparently, this is the group that had the time to respond. The researcher who was conducting the study went back to the questionnaire to find out what the problem was and found that all those who had responded were third and fourth PhD students. Bias can be very costly and has to be gaurded against as much as possible. For this case, $2000.00 had been spent and there were no reliable results in addition, it cost the reseacher his job since his employer thought if he was qualified, he should have known that before hand and planned on how to avoid it. A means of selecting the units of analysis must be designed to avoid the more obvious forms of bias. Another example would be where you would like to know the average income of some community and you decide to use the telephone numbers to select a sample of the total population in a locality where only the rich and middle class households have telephone lines. You will end up with high average income which will lead to the wrong policy decisions. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Non sampling error (measurement error) <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The other main cause of unrepresentative samples is non sampling error. This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample is being used. Like sampling error, non sampling error may either be produced by participants in the statistical study or be an innocent by product of the sampling plans and procedures. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A non sampling error is an error that results solely from the manner in which the observations are made. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The simplest example of non sampling error is inaccurate measurements due to malfuntioning instruments or poor procedures. For example, Consider the observation of human weights. If persons are asked to state their own weights themselves, no two answers will be of equal reliability. The people will have weighed themselves on different scales in various states of poor caliberation. An individual`s weight fluctuates diurnally by several pounds, so that the time of weighing will affect the answer. The scale reading will also vary with the person`s state of undress. Responses therefore will not be of comparable validity unless all persons are weighed under the same circumstances. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Biased observations due to inaccurate measurement can be innocent but very devastating. A story is told of a French astronomer who once proposed a new theory based on spectroscopic measurements of light emitted by a particular star. When his colleques discovered that the measuring instrument had been contaminated by cigarette smoke, they rejected his findings. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In surveys of personal characteristics, unintended errors may result from: -The manner in which the response is elicited -The social desirability of the persons surveyed -The purpose of the study -The personal biases of the interviewer or survey writer <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The interwiers effect <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">No two interviewers are alike and the same person may provide different answers to different interviewers. The manner in which a question is formulated can also result in inaccurate responses. Individuals tend to provide false answers to particular questions. For example, some people want to feel younger or older for some reason known to themselves. If you ask such a person their age in years, it is easier for the idividual just to lie to you by over stating their age by one or more years than it is if you asked which year they were born since it will require a bit of quick arithmetic to give a false date and a date of birth will definitely be more accurate. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The respondent effect <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Respondents might also give incorrect answers to impress the interviewer. This type of error is the most difficult to prevent because it results from out right deceit on the part of the respondee. An example of this is what I witnessed in my recent study in which I was asking farmers how much maize they harvested last year (1995). In most cases, the men tended to lie by saying a figure which is the reccomended expected yield that is 25 bags per acre. The responses from men looked so uniform that I became suspicious. I compared with the responses of the wives of the these men and their responses were all different. To decide which one was right, whenever possible I could in a tactful way verify with an older son or daughter. It is important to acknowledge that certain psychological factors induce incorrect responses and great care must be taken to design a study that minimizes their effect. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Knowing the study purpose <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Knowing why a study is being conducted may create incorrect responses. A classic example is the question: What is your income? If a government agency is asking, a different figure may be provided than the respondent would give on an application for a home mortgage. One way to guard against such bias is to camouflage the study`s goals; Another remedy is to make the questions very specific, allowing no room for personal interpretation. For example, "Where are you employed?" could be followed by "What is your salary?" and "Do you have any extra jobs?" A sequence of such questions may produce more accurate information. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Induced bias <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Finally, it should be noted that the personal prejudices of either the designer of the study or the data collector may tend to induce bias. In designing a questionnaire, questions may be slanted in such a way that a particular response will be obtained even though it is inacurrate. For example, an agronomist may apply fertilizer to certain key plots, knowing that they will provide more favourable yields than others. To protect against induced bias, advice of an individual trained in statistics should be sought in the design and someone else aware of search pitfalls should serve in an auditing capacity. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">SELECTING THE SAMPLE <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The preceding section has covered the most common problems associated with statistical studies. The desirability of a sampling procedure depends on both its vulnerability to error and its cost. However, economy and reliability are competing ends, because, to reduce error often requires an increased expenditure of resources. Of the two types of statistical errors, only sampling error can be controlled by exercising care in determining the method for choosing the sample. The previous section has shown that sampling error may be due to either bias or chance. The chance component (sometimes called random error) exists no matter how carefully the selection procedures are implemented, and the only way to minimize chance sampling errors is to select a sufficiently large sample (sample size is discussed towards the end of this tutorial). Sampling bias on the other hand may be minimized by the wise choice of a sampling procedure. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TYPES OF SAMPLES <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are three primary kinds of samples: the convenience, the judgement sample, and the random sample. They differ in the manner in which the elementary units are chosen. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The convenient sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a population for observation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The judgement sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The random sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as a probability sample. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles. For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of 100, you can write their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case, every name had any equal chance of being picked. Random numbers can also be used (see Lapin page 81). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLES <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A simple random sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen randomly as discussed below. such a procedure is called systematic random sampling. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A systematic random sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every 5th name until you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected students. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A stratified sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A cluster sample <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in Newyork State are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, then every school selected becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on thei opinion of some new program which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed. Though very economical cluster sampling is very susceptible to sampling bias. Like for the above case, you are likely to get similar responses from teachers in one school due to the fact that they interact with one another. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Purposeful sampling selects information rich cases for indepth study. Size and specific cases depend on the study purpose. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are about 16 different types of purposeful sampling. They are briefly described below for you to be aware of them. The details can be found in Patton(1990)Pg 169-186. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Extreme and deviant case sampling This involves learning from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest, suchas outstanding successes, notable failures, top of the class, dropouts, exotic events, crises. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Intensity sampling This is information rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely, but not extremely, such as good students,poor students, above average/below average. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Maximum variation sampling This involves purposefully picking a wide range of variation on dimentions of interest. This documents unique or diverse variations that have emerged in adapting to different conditions. It also identifies important common patterns that cut across variations. Like in the example of interviewing Cornell students, you may want to get students of different nationalities, professional backgrounds, cultures, work experience and the like. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Homogenious sampling This one reduces variation, simplifies analysis, facilitates group interviewing. Like instead of having the maximum number of nationalities as in the above case of maximum variation, it may focus on one nationality say Americans only. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Typical case sampling It involves taking a sample of what one would call typical, normal or average for a particular phenomenon, <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Stratified purposeful sampling This illustrates charecteristics of particular subgroups of interest and facilitates comparisons between the different groups. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Critical case sampling> This permits logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases like "If it is true for this one case, it is likely to be true of all other cases. You must have heard statements like if it happenned to so and so then it can happen to anybody. Or if so and so passed that exam, then anybody can pass. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Snowball or chain sampling This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know what cases are information rich, that is good examples for study, good interview subjects. This is commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless households. What you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others are or can be found. When you find those others they will tell you where you can get more others and the chain continues. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criterion sampling Here, you set a criteria and pick all cases that meet that criteria for example, all ladies six feet tall, all white cars, all farmers that have planted onions. This method of sampling is very strong in quality assurance. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Theory based or operational construct sampling. Finding manifestations of a theoretical construct of interest so as to elaborate and examine the construct. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Confirming and disconfirming cases Elaborating and deepening initial analysis like if you had already started some study, you are seeking further information or confirming some emerging issues which are not clear, seeking exceptions and testing variation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Opportunistic Sampling This involves following new leads during field work, taking advantage of the unexpected flexibility. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Random purposeful sampling This adds credibility when the purposeful sample is larger than one can handle. Reduces judgement within a purposeful category. But it is not for generalizations or representativeness. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Sampling politically important cases This type of sampling attracts or avoids attracting attention undesired attention by purposisefully eliminating from the sample political cases. These may be individuals, or localities. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Convenience sampling It is useful in getting general ideas about the phenomenon of interest. For example you decide you will interview the first ten people you meet tomorrow morning. It saves time, money and effort. It is the poorest way of getting samples, has the lowest credibility and yields information-poor cases. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Combination or mixed purposeful sampling This combines various sampling strategies to achieve the desired sample. This helps in triangulation, allows for flexibility, and meets multiple interests and needs. When selecting a sampling strategy it is necessary that it fits the purpose of the study, the resources available, the question being asked and the constraints being faced. This holds true for sampling strategy as well as sample size. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">SAMPLE SIZE <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study population. For example, all children below age three in Tomkin`s County. Then determine your sampling frame which could be a list of all the chidren below three as recorded by Tomkin`s County. You can then struggle with the sample size. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The question of how large a sample should be is a difficult one. Sample size can be determined by various constraints. For example, the available funding may prespecify the sample size. When research costs are fixed, a useful rule of thumb is to spent about one half of the total amount for data collection and the other half for data analysis. This constraint influences the sample size as well as sample design and data collection procedures. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In general, sample size depends on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to be examined simultaneously and how heterogenous a universe is sampled. For example, if the key analysis of a randomized experiment consists of computing averages for experimentals and controls in a project and comparing differences, then a sample under 100 might be adequate, assuming that other statistical assumptions hold. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In non-experimental research, most often, relevant variables have to be controlled statistically because groups differ by factors other than chance. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">More technical considerations suggest that the required sample size is a function of the precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the variability or variance, one expects to find in the population and the statistical level of confidence one wishes to use. The sample size N required to estimate a population mean (average) with a given level of precision is: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The square root of N=(1.96)*(&)/precision Where & is the population standard deviation of the for the variable whose mean one is interested in estimating. Precision refers to width of the interval one is willing to tolerate and 1.96 reflects the confidence level. For details on this please see Salant and Dillman (1994). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">For example, to estimate mean earnings in a population with an accuracy of $100 per year, using a 95% confidence interval and assuming that the standard deviation of earnings in the population is $1600.0, the required sample size is 983:[(1.96)(1600/100)] squared.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Deciding on a sample size for qualitative inquiry can be even more difficult than quantitative because there are no definite rules to be followed. It will depend on what you want to know, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be usefull, what will have credibility and what can be done with available time and resources. With fixed resources which is always the case, you can choose to study one specific phenomenon in depth with a smaller sample size or a bigger sample size when seeking breadth. In purposeful sampling, the sample should be judged on the basis of the purpose and rationale for each study and the sampling strategy used to achieve the studies purpose. The validity, meangfulness, and insights generated from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information-richness of the cases selected and the observational/analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample size. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">CONCLUSION <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In conclusion, it can be said that using a sample in research saves mainly on money and time, if a suitable sampling strategy is used, appropriate sample size selected and necessary precautions taken to reduce on sampling and measurement errors, then a sample should yield valid and reliable information. Details on sampling can be obtained from the references included below and many other books on statistics or qualitative research which can be found in libraries. <o:p></o:p></span></p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-33204550643922286302008-04-04T16:50:00.001+04:302008-04-04T16:55:42.688+04:30Counseling NotesHistory of Counselling & Psychotherapy<br /><br />Although psychological therapies trace their history back to the contributions of Freud, many modern approaches to counselling and psychotherapy are now much more firmly grounded in other bodies of thought.<br /><br /> * Contents<br /><br /> * Freud and His Successors<br /> * The Medical vs. Non-Medical Split<br /> * The Counselling vs. Psychotherapy Divide<br /> * Counselling and Psychotherapy Today<br /> * Further Discussion<br /><br />Freud and His Successors<br /><br />Modern psychological therapies trace their history back to the work of Sigmund Freud in Vienna in the 1880s. Trained as a neurologist, Freud entered private practice in 1886 and by 1896 had developed a method of working with hysterical patients which he called 'psychoanalysis'. Others such as Alfred Adler, Snador Ferenczi, Karl Abraham and Otto Rank were also analysed by Freud and had brief apprentice-type training from him before becoming psychoanalysts in their own right.<br /><br />In the early 1900s, Ernest Jones and A.A. Brill, from the UK and US respectively, visited Freud in Vienna and returned to their own countries to promote Freud's methods; Freud himself began a lecture tour of North America in 1909. Gradually many such as Ferenczi, Adler, Rank, Stekel and Reich began to develop their own theories and approaches, which sometimes differed markedly from Freud's. Jung in particular, a close collaborator of Freud's from 1907-1913 who was in some sense 'groomed' as Freud's intellectual successor, eventually split from Freud and pursued the development of his own school of analytical psychology, drawing heavily on both Freud's and Adler's ideas. All these immediate descendants of Freud's approach are characterized by a focus on the dynamics of the relationships between different parts of the psyche and the external world; thus the term 'psychodynamics'.<br /><br />A separate strand of psychological therapies developed later under the influence of psychology and learning theory and leading thinkers such as B.F. Skinner. Rejecting the notion of 'hidden' aspects of the psyche which cannot be examined empirically (such as Freud's rendition of the 'unconscious'), practitioners in the behavioural tradition began to focus on what could actually be observed in the outside world.<br /><br />Finally, under the influence of Adler and Rank, a 'third way' was pioneered by the US psychologist Carl Rogers. Originally called 'client-centred' and later 'person-centred', Rogers's approach focuses on the experience of the person, neither adopting elaborate and empirically untestable theoretical constructs of the type common in psychodynamic traditions, nor neglecting the internal world of the client in the way of early behaviourists. Other approaches also developed under what came to be called the 'humanistic' branch of psychotherapy, including Gestalt therapy and the psychodrama of J.L. Moreno. The figure below illustrates some of the historical links between these three main strands which developed from Freud's original contributions.<br /><br /><br />Three strands of development in the history of counselling and psychotherapy<br />The Medical vs. Non-Medical Split<br /><br />Freud strongly supported the idea of lay analysts without medical training, and he analysed several lay people who later went on to become leading psychoanalysts, including Oskar Pfister, Otto Rank and his own daughter Anna Freud. He published two staunch defenses of lay analysis in 1926 and 1927, arguing that medicine and the practice of analysis were two different things. When Ernest Jones brought psychoanalysis to the UK in 1913, he followed Freud's preferences in this area, and the tradition of lay involvement continues to this day in the UK, where most psychoanalysts, psychotherapists and counsellors have a lay background.<br /><br />In the US, however, Freud's analysand A.A. Brill insisted that analysts should be medically qualified -- even though there were already many lay analysts practising in the US who, like Brill, had trained with Freud in Vienna. Brill prevailed, however: in 1926 the state of New York made lay analysis illegal, and shortly thereafter the American Medical Association warned its members not to cooperate with lay analysts. To this day, almost all US psychoanalysts are medically qualified, and counsellors typically study psychology as undergraduates before becoming counsellors.<br />The Counselling vs. Psychotherapy Divide<br /><br />It was largely in response to the US prejudice against lay therapists that Carl Rogers adopted the word 'counseling', originally used by social activist Frank Parsons in 1908. As a psychologist, Rogers was not originally permitted by the psychiatry profession to call himself a 'psychotherapist'. Ironically, Rogers himself became renowned as one of the most influential empirical scientists in the fields of psychology and psychiatry, introducing rigorous scientific methods to psychology and psychotherapy that psychoanalysts themselves had long resisted (and, in the view of many, still largely resist today). He became a joint Professor in the Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin as well as Head of the Psychotherapy Research Section of the Wisconsin Psychiatric Institute.<br /><br />In the field as it now stands, the argument as to whether counselling differs significantly from psychotherapy is largely academic. Those from psychodynamic traditions sometimes equate 'psychoanalysis' and 'psychotherapy' -- suggesting that only psychoanalysts are really psychotherapists -- but this view is not common anywhere else. Others use 'psychotherapy' to refer to longer-term work (even though some psychotherapists offer brief therapy) and 'counselling' to refer to shorter term work (even though some counsellors may work with clients for years). The two terms are commonly used interchangeably in the US, with the obvious exception of 'guidance counseling', which is often provided in educational settings and focuses on career and social issues.<br />Counselling and Psychotherapy Today<br /><br />Modern counselling and psychotherapy have benefited tremendously from the empirical tradition which was given such impetus by Carl Rogers, even though the research agendas of psychology and counselling have diverged greatly over the last half century. Additional work in cognitive psychology, learning theory and behaviour has informed many therapeutic approaches. The richness of the bodies of both empirical and theoretical work which are now available, coupled with the raw complexity of human beings, has led to a profusion of different approaches to the field. By some accounts, the different strands of counselling and psychotherapy now number in the hundreds. Mainstream approaches, however, are much fewer in number, and over time it is likely that many of the less well-grounded schools of thought will fade away, while more new ones will emerge to take their place. While the main approaches continue to develop, and others appear and then fade away, clients are left to choose for themselves what might be best for them. Hopefully the information provided by this site (incomplete though it very definitely is!) will be of some help in this process.<br /><br />Difference between coaching, counseling and psychotherapy<br /><a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/coaching-1" target="_top">Coaching</a> tends to be future oriented, goal focused and asks the client to be accountable to themselves according to the specific goals agreed upon. Counseling tends to be oriented in equal measure to the past, present and future as well as problem and solution focused but less on <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/psychopathology" target="_top">psychopathology</a> than psychotherapy.[citation needed]<br /><a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/psychotherapy" target="_top">Psychotherapy</a> tends to deal more with individuals who wish to get to the source of their <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/clinical-depression-1" target="_top">clinical depression</a>, <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/anxiety" target="_top">anxiety</a> or <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/personality-disorder" target="_top">personality disorder</a>. This distinction is not hard and fast however, as in both common and professional usage counseling and psychotherapy are interchangeable, whilst coaching is perceived as different and limited to either executive or sports coaching, yet includes therapeutic coaching in its realm. This leads to confusion for both customers and practitioners in a complex service industry that now includes marriage <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/mentorship" target="_top">mentoring</a>, for example. The differences are usually to do with the type of training, accreditation and special interests of each type of coach, counselor or psychotherapist.<br />Coaching arose from management consultancy and leadership training, and has grown into traditional counseling and psychotherapy fields such as <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/conflict-coaching" target="_top">conflict coaching</a> and <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/systemic-coaching" target="_top">systemic coaching</a>. Coaching and counseling tend to arise from a <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/humanism-3" target="_top">humanistic</a> and <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/person-centered-psychotherapy" target="_top">client-centered</a> approach. Counselors attend to both normal social, cultural and developmental issues as well as the problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental disorders. These are nonpathologizing views of the person in context. A vital ingredient is their view that coaching and counseling are a meeting between practitioner and client, which invites the creative possibilities of <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/dialogue-2001" target="_top">dialogue</a> in contrast to treatment of a disorder and in <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/mentorship" target="_top">mentoring</a>, a partnership of colleagues of greater and lesser experience. Many personal coaches and counselors use movement, psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral approaches in their work, usually integrating these aspects into the process when appropriate and beneficial to their client.<br />Coaching, psychotherapy and counseling all encourage <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/self-help" target="_top">self help</a> as a resource for change, but to different degrees. For example, will a person believed to be suffering a mental disorder think about self-help in a disordered way - using aluminum foil wrapping of the skull to prevent their thoughts being broadcast to a television set, for example. This could be considered disordered self-help. By contrast, in an approach that does not pathologize the person, the practitioner is unlikely to pathologize the client's self help strategy and some may even research the science of experience to find information about the effectiveness of a skullcap.<br />Coaching, psychotherapy and counseling, taken together and used together represent an eclectic approach and serve as perhaps the best approach when taken together, since clients come from various backgrounds and circumstances and represent different needs and issues.<br /> An Introduction to Person-Centred Counselling<br />Taking the view that every individual has the internal resources they need for growth, person-centred counselling aims to provide three 'core conditions' (unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence) which help that growth to occur.<br />• Contents<br />• Underlying Theory of Person-Centred Counselling<br />• Therapeutic Approach of Person-Centred Counselling<br />• Criticisms of Person-Centred Counselling<br />• Best Fit With Clients<br />• Further Reading on Person-Centred Counselling<br />• External Reading Suggestions on Person-Centred Counselling<br />Underlying Theory of Person-Centred Counselling<br />The person-centred approach views the client as their own best authority on their own experience, and it views the client as being fully capable of fulfilling their own potential for growth. It recognizes, however, that achieving potential requires favourable conditions and that under adverse conditions, individuals may well not grow and develop in the ways that they otherwise could. In particular, when individuals are denied acceptance and positive regard from others -- or when that positive regard is made conditional upon the individual behaving in particular ways -- they may begin to lose touch with what their own experience means for them, and their innate tendency to grow in a direction consistent with that meaning may be stifled.<br />One reason this may occur is that individuals often cope with the conditional acceptance offered to them by others by gradually coming to incorporate these conditions into their own views about themselves. They may form a self-concept which includes views of themselves like, "I am the sort of person who must never be late", or "I am the sort of person who always respects others", or "I am the sort of person who always keeps the house clean". Because of a fundamental need for positive regard from others, it is easier to 'be' this sort of person -- and to receive positive regard from others as a result -- than it is to 'be' anything else and risk losing that positive regard. Over time, their intrinsic sense of their own identity and their own evaluations of experience and attributions of value may be replaced by creations partly or even entirely due to the pressures felt from other people. That is, the individual displaces personal judgements and meanings with those of others.<br />Psychological disturbance occurs when the individual's 'self-concept' begins to clash with immediate personal experience -- i.e., when the evidence of the individual's own senses or the individual's own judgement clashes with what the self-concept says 'ought' to be the case. Unfortunately, disturbance is apt to continue as long as the individual depends on the conditionally positive judgements of others for their sense of self-worth and as long as the individual relies on a self-concept designed in part to earn those positive judgements. Experiences which challenge the self-concept are apt to be distorted or even denied altogether in order to preserve it.<br />Therapeutic Approach of Person-Centred Counselling<br />The person-centred approach maintains that three core conditions provide a climate conducive to growth and therapeutic change. They contrast starkly with those conditions believed to be responsible for psychological disturbance. The core conditions are:<br />1. Unconditional positive regard<br />2. Empathic understanding<br />3. Congruence<br />The first -- unconditional positive regard -- means that the counsellor accepts the client unconditionally and non-judgementally. The client is free to explore all thoughts and feelings, positive or negative, without danger of rejection or condemnation. Crucially, the client is free to explore and to express without having to do anything in particular or meet any particular standards of behaviour to 'earn' positive regard from the counsellor. The second -- empathic understanding -- means that the counsellor accurately understands the client's thoughts, feelings, and meanings from the client's own perspective. When the counsellor perceives what the world is like from the client's point of view, it demonstrates not only that that view has value, but also that the client is being accepted. The third -- congruence -- means that the counsellor is authentic and genuine. The counsellor does not present an aloof professional facade, but is present and transparent to the client. There is no air of authority or hidden knowledge, and the client does not have to speculate about what the counsellor is 'really like'.<br />Together, these three core conditions are believed to enable the client to develop and grow in their own way -- to strengthen and expand their own identity and to become the person that they 'really' are independently of the pressures of others to act or think in particular ways.<br />As a result, person-centred theory takes these core conditions as both necessary and sufficient for therapeutic movement to occur -- i.e., that if these core conditions are provided, then the client will experience therapeutic change. (Indeed, the achievement of identifying and articulating these core conditions and launching a significant programme of scientific research to test hypotheses about them was one of the greatest contributions of Carl Rogers, the American psychologist who first began formulating the person-centred approach in the 1930s and 1940s.) Notably, person-centred theory suggests that there is nothing essentially unique about the counselling relationship and that in fact healthy relationships with significant others may well manifest the core conditions and thus be therapeutic, although normally in a transitory sort of way, rather than consistently and continually.<br />Finally, as noted at the outset, the person-centred approach takes clients as their own best authorities. The focus of person-centred therapy is always on the client's own feelings and thoughts, not on those of the therapist -- and certainly not on diagnosis or categorization. The person-centred therapist makes every attempt to foster an environment in which clients can encounter themselves and become more intimate with their own thoughts, feelings and meanings.<br />Criticisms of Person-Centred Counselling<br />A frequent criticism of the person-centred approach is that delivering the core conditions is what all good therapists do anyway, before they move on to applying their expertise and doing the real work of 'making clients better'. On the face of it, this criticism reflects a misunderstanding of the real challenges of consistently manifesting unconditional positive regard, empathic understanding and congruence. This is especially true of congruence: to the extent that some therapeutic techniques deployed in some other traditions depend on the counsellor's willingness to 'hold back', mentally formulate hypotheses about the client, or conceal their own personal reactions behind a consistent professional face, there is a real challenge in applying these techniques with the openness and honesty which defines congruence. It may also demonstrate something of a reluctance to take seriously the empirical research on counselling effectiveness and the conclusion that the quality of the client-counsellor relationship is a leading predictor of therapeutic effectiveness -- although this is somewhat more controversial, since one might argue that providing the core conditions is not the only way to achieve a quality relationship. (See the page on Comparing Effectiveness.)<br />At a deeper level, however, there is a more sophisticated point lurking, which many expositions of person-centred theory seem to avoid addressing head-on. Namely, given that the self is the single most important resource the person-centred counsellor brings to the therapeutic relationship, it makes sense to ask: what (if anything) is it important that this self has, apart from the three core conditions? I.e., manifesting of the core conditions does not by itself tell us what experiences or philosophies the counsellor is bringing to the relationship. It tells us that the client will have transparent access to that self -- because the counsellor is congruent -- but it doesn't tell us anything else about that self. Whether or not that self should be developed in any particular way, or whether that self should acquire any particular background knowledge, seems to me a question which is more often side-stepped than answered within the person-centred tradition.<br />(Another way to understand this point is this: given two counsellors, each of whom manifests the core conditions to some specified degree, what else, if anything, matters? Would it be better for a given client to have the one who is an expert at astrophysics or the one who is an economist? Would it be better for a given client to have the one who struggled through a decade of ethnic cleansing in a war-torn country or the one who went to private school in an affluent suburb and subsequently worked as a stockbroker? Aside from academic expertise and personal history, what about personal philosophy, parenthood, and other factors?)<br />Best Fit With Clients<br />Clients who have a strong urge in the direction of exploring themselves and their feelings and who value personal responsibility may be particularly attracted to the person-centred approach. Those who would like a counsellor to offer them extensive advice, to diagnose their problems, or to analyse their psyches will probably find the person-centred approach less helpful. Clients who would like to address specific psychological habits or patterns of thinking may find some variation in the helpfulness of the person-centred approach, as the individual therapeutic styles of person-centred counsellors vary widely, and some will feel more able than others to engage directly with these types of concerns.<br />Further Reading on Person-Centred Counselling<br />The Annotated Bibliography includes pointers to additional reading on this and other therapeutic approaches. Mearns and Thorne (1999) provide a very readable account of person-centred counselling, while Rogers (1961) is a much more in-depth collection of papers. Barrett-Lennard (1998) offers a very detailed and scholarly treatment of the field.<br />A separate paper in the 'Critical Engagements' section of this site critically compares person-centred and existential counselling.<br />External Reading Suggestions on Person-Centred Counselling<br />The following books are presently bestsellers at Amazon in the area of person-centred counselling; the fact they're bestsellers doesn't necessarily imply anything good or bad about them as books, but it does imply that these are some of what people are buying in this field.<br />Underlying Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy<br /><br />Rational emotive behaviour therapy ('REBT') views human beings as 'responsibly hedonistic' in the sense that they strive to remain alive and to achieve some degree of happiness. However, it also holds that humans are prone to adopting irrational beliefs and behaviours which stand in the way of their achieving their goals and purposes. Often, these irrational attitudes or philosophies take the form of extreme or dogmatic 'musts', 'shoulds', or 'oughts'; they contrast with rational and flexible desires, wishes, preferences and wants. The presence of extreme philosophies can make all the difference between healthy negative emotions (such as sadness or regret or concern) and unhealthy negative emotions (such as depression or guilt or anxiety). For example, one person's philosophy after experiencing a loss might take the form: "It is unfortunate that this loss has occurred, although there is no actual reason why it should not have occurred. It is sad that it has happened, but it is not awful, and I can continue to function." Another's might take the form: "This absolutely should not have happened, and it is horrific that it did. These circumstances are now intolerable, and I cannot continue to function." The first person's response is apt to lead to sadness, while the second person may be well on their way to depression. Most importantly of all, REBT maintains that individuals have it within their power to change their beliefs and philosophies profoundly, and thereby to change radically their state of psychological health.<br /><br />REBT employs the 'ABC framework' -- depicted in the figure below -- to clarify the relationship between activating events (A); our beliefs about them (B); and the cognitive, emotional or behavioural consequences of our beliefs (C). The ABC model is also used in some renditions of cognitive therapy or cognitive behavioural therapy, where it is also applied to clarify the role of mental activities or predispositions in mediating between experiences and emotional responses.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ABC model.<br /><br />The figure below shows how the framework distinguishes between the effects of rational beliefs about negative events, which give rise to healthy negative emotions, and the effects of irrational beliefs about negative events, which lead to unhealthy negative emotions.<br /><br />Negative events and healthy vs. unhealthy responses.<br /><br />In addition to the ABC framework, REBT also employs three primary insights:<br /><br />1. While external events are of undoubted influence, psychological disturbance is largely a matter of personal choice in the sense that individuals consciously or unconsciously select both rational beliefs and irrational beliefs at (B) when negative events occur at (A)<br />2. Past history and present life conditions strongly affect the person, but they do not, in and of themselves, disturb the person; rather, it is the individual's responses which disturb them, and it is again a matter of individual choice whether to maintain the philosophies at (B) which cause disturbance.<br />3. Modifying the philosophies at (B) requires persistence and hard work, but it can be done.<br /><br />Therapeutic Approach of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy<br /><br />The main purpose of REBT is to help clients to replace absolutist philosophies, full of 'musts' and 'shoulds', with more flexible ones; part of this includes learning to accept that all human beings (including themselves) are fallible and learning to increase their tolerance for frustration while aiming to achieve their goals. Although emphasizing the same 'core conditions' as person-centred counselling -- namely, empathy, unconditional positive regard, and counsellor genuineness -- in the counselling relationship, REBT views these conditions as neither necessary nor sufficient for therapeutic change to occur.<br /><br />The basic process of change which REBT attempts to foster begins with the client acknowledging the existence of a problem and identifying any 'meta-disturbances' about that problem (i.e., problems about the problem, such as feeling guilty about being depressed). The client then identifies the underlying irrational belief which caused the original problem and comes to understand both why it is irrational and why a rational alternative would be preferable. The client challenges their irrational belief and employs a variety of cognitive, behavioural, emotive and imagery techniques to strengthen their conviction in a rational alternative. (For example, rational emotive imagery, or REI, helps clients practice changing unhealthy negative emotions into healthy ones at (C) while imagining the negative event at (A), as a way of changing their underlying philosophy at (B); this is designed to help clients move from an intellectual insight about which of their beliefs are rational and which irrational to a stronger 'gut' instinct about the same.) They identify impediments to progress and overcome them, and they work continuously to consolidate their gains and to prevent relapse.<br /><br />To further this process, REBT advocates 'selective eclecticism', which means that REBT counsellors are encouraged to make use of techniques from other approaches, while still working specifically within the theoretical framework of REBT. In other words, REBT maintains theoretical coherence while pragmatically employing techniques that work.<br /><br />Throughout, the counsellor may take a very directive role, actively disputing the client's irrational beliefs, agreeing homework assignments which help the client to overcome their irrational beliefs, and in general 'pushing' the client to challenge themselves and to accept the discomfort which may accompany the change process.<br />Criticisms of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy<br /><br />As one leading proponent of REBT has indicated, REBT is easy to practise poorly, and it is from this that one immediate criticism suggests itself from the perspective of someone who takes a philosophical approach to life anyway: inelegant REBT could be profoundly irritating! The kind of conceptual disputing favoured by REBT could easily meander off track into minutiae relatively far removed from the client's central concern, and the mental gymnastics required to keep client and therapist on the same track could easily eat up time better spent on more productive activities. The counsellor's and client's estimations of relative importance could diverge rather profoundly, particularly if the client's outlook really does embody significant irrationalities. Having said all that, each of the preceding sentences includes the qualifier 'could', and with a great deal of skill, each pitfall undoubtedly could be avoided.<br /><br />Perhaps more importantly, it would appear that the need to match therapeutic approach with client preference is even more pressing with REBT than with many others. In other words, it seems very important to adopt the REBT approach only with clients who truly are suitable, as it otherwise risks being strongly counter-productive. On this point, however, it is crucial to realize that some clients specifically do appreciate exactly this kind of approach, and counsellors who are unable or unwilling to provide the disputation required are probably not right for those clients.<br />Best Fit With Clients<br /><br />REBT is much less empirically supported than some other approaches: the requisite studies simply have not been completed yet, and the relevant data points for determining the best match with clients are therefore thin on the ground. However, one may envision clients responding particularly well who are both willing and able to conceptualise their problems within the ABC framework, and who are committed to active participation in the process of identifying and changing irrational beliefs (including performing homework assignments in support of the latter). Clients will also need to be able to work collaboratively with a counsellor who will challenge and dispute with them directly, and a scientific and at least somewhat logical outlook would seem a pre-requisite. REBT would be less suitable for clients who do not meet one or more of the above. And as hinted above in the section on Criticims, one might also speculate that clients who are already highly skilled in philosophical engagement could find the approach less useful. (Perhaps REBT-style self help could be of more benefit for such clients?)<br />Further Reading on Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy<br /><br />The Annotated Bibliography includes pointers to additional reading on this and other therapeutic approaches. The comment referenced in the section on Criticisms, on the easiness of practising REBT poorly, is due to Dryden (2002b), p. 367; the notion of 'selective eclecticism' is due to Dryden (1987). Note that REBT is closely related to cognitive therapy and is viewed by many as a subset of it.<br />External Reading Suggestions on Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy<br /><br />The following books are presently bestsellers at Amazon in the area of rational emotive behaviour therapy; the fact they're bestsellers doesn't necessarily imply anything good or bad about them as books, but it does imply that these are some of what people are buying in this field.<br /><br />An Introduction to Cognitive Therapy & Cognitive Behavioural Approaches<br /><br />Cognitive therapy (or cognitive behavioural therapy) helps the client to uncover and alter distortions of thought or perceptions which may be causing or prolonging psychological distress.<br /><br />* Contents<br /><br />* Underlying Theory of Cognitive Therapy<br />* Therapeutic Approach of Cognitive or Cognitive Behavioural Therapy<br />* Criticisms of Cognitive Therapy and CBT<br />* Best Fit With Clients<br />* Further Reading on Cognitive Therapy<br />* External Reading Suggestions on Cognitive Therapy<br /><br />Underlying Theory of Cognitive Therapy<br /><br />The central insight of cognitive therapy as originally formulated over three decades ago is that thoughts mediate between stimuli, such as external events, and emotions. As in the figure below, a stimulus elicits a thought -- which might be an evaluative judgement of some kind -- which in turn gives rise to an emotion. In other words, it is not the stimulus itself which somehow elicits an emotional response directly, but our evaluation of or thought about that stimulus. (Some practitioners use Ellis's ABC model, described in the section on rational emotive behaviour therapy, to describe the role of thoughts or attitudes mediating between events and our emotional responses.) Two ancillary assumptions underpin the approach of the cognitive therapist: 1) the client is capable of becoming aware of his or her own thoughts and of changing them, and 2) sometimes the thoughts elicited by stimuli distort or otherwise fail to reflect reality accurately.<br /><br />Stimulus --> Thought --> Emotion.<br /><br /><br /><br />A common 'everyday example' of alternative thoughts or beliefs about the same experience and their resulting emotions might be the case of an individual being turned down for a job. She might believe that she was passed over for the job because she was fundamentally incompetent. In that case, she might well become depressed, and she might be less likely to apply for similar jobs in the future. If, on the other hand, she believed that she was passed over because the field of candidates was exceptionally strong, she might feel disappointed but not depressed, and the experience probably wouldn't dissuade her from applying for other similar jobs.<br /><br />Cognitive therapy suggests that psychological distress is caused by distorted thoughts about stimuli giving rise to distressed emotions. The theory is particularly well developed (and empirically supported) in the case of depression, where clients frequently experience unduly negative thoughts which arise automatically even in response to stimuli which might otherwise be experienced as positive. For instance, a depressed client hearing "please stop talking in class" might think "everything I do is wrong; there is no point in even trying". The same client might hear "you've received top marks on your essay" and think "that was a fluke; I won't ever get a mark like that again", or he might hear "you've really improved over the last term" and think "I was really abysmal at the start of term". Any of these thoughts could lead to feelings of hopelessness or reduced self esteem, maintaining or worsening the individual's depression.<br /><br />Usually cognitive therapeutic work is informed by an awareness of the role of the client's behaviour as well (thus the term 'cognitive behavioural therapy', or CBT). The task of cognitive therapy or CBT is partly to understand how the three components of emotions, behaviours and thoughts interrelate, and how they may be influenced by external stimuli -- including events which may have occurred early in the client's life.<br /><br /><br /><br />Thought-Emotion-Behaviour interrelationship.<br />Therapeutic Approach of Cognitive or Cognitive Behavioural Therapy<br /><br />Cognitive therapy aims to help the client to become aware of thought distortions which are causing psychological distress, and of behavioural patterns which are reinforcing it, and to correct them. The objective is not to correct every distortion in a client's entire outlook -- and after all, virtually everyone distorts reality in many ways -- just those which may be at the root of distress. The therapist will make every effort to understand experiences from the client's point of view, and the client and therapist will work collaboratively with an empirical spirit, like scientists, exploring the client's thoughts, assumptions and inferences. The therapist helps the client learn to test these by checking them against reality and against other assumptions.<br /><br />Often this process will continue outside the therapeutic session. For instance, a client whose fear of dying in a car crash is causing them great anxiety when it comes time to drive to work might record on a slip of paper their estimate of the odds of dying in a car crash at various points in the morning -- when they first get up, when they are nearly ready to leave the house, when they are almost to the car, and when they are actually driving. (For someone experiencing such anxiety, these odds might go something like: 1,000 to 1 against when first getting up; 20 to 1 against when nearly ready to leave the house; 2 to 1 against when almost to the car; 5 to 1 in favour of dying in a car crash when actually driving.) This can help the client to see that their estimated odds of actually dying in a car crash are changing just as they move about the house and complete the morning routine. This can be the first step toward making those estimates more realistic and reducing the anxiety which accompanies the thought that one is very likely to die in a crash while driving.<br /><br />Because of the interrelationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviours, therapeutic interventions frequently involve the client's behaviour. For instance, a client with a strong fear that squirrels will jump onto their head if they walk under trees may go to great lengths to avoid walking under trees. This behaviour will prevent the client from acquiring information that contradicts their thought that "if I walk under a tree, a squirrel will jump onto my head" or perhaps their mental image of a squirrel jumping onto their head the moment they step under a tree. The therapist may help the client to overcome this avoidance of walking under trees as part of the process of correcting the distorted thought that walking under trees will lead to squirrels jumping on the client's head.<br /><br />Throughout this process of learning, exploring and testing, the client acquires coping strategies as well as improved skills of awareness, introspection and evaluation. This enables them to manage the process on their own in the future, reducing their reliance on the therapist and reducing the likelihood of experiencing a relapse.<br />Criticisms of Cognitive Therapy and CBT<br /><br />On first hearing of the basic cognitive therapeutic approach, many people will observe that simply being told that a view doesn't accurately reflect reality doesn't actually make them feel any better. They might say, "I know squirrels aren't likely to jump on my head, but I can't help worrying about it anyway". But to suggest that a cognitive therapist merely tells the client something is wrong is to caricature the approach (and, in fact, few cognitive therapists would actually tell a client some view doesn't reflect reality anyway; they would help the client to explore whether it reflects reality). This would be like criticising the person-centred approach on the grounds that a therapist merely telling a client they are free to discuss anything they like, without judgement from the therapist, doesn't make it feel any easier to talk about difficult problems.<br /><br />A more salient criticism for some clients may be that the therapist initially may fulfil something of an authority role, in the sense that they provide problem solving experience or expertise in cognitive psychology. Some people may also feel that the therapist can be 'leading' in their questioning and somewhat directive in terms of their recommendations.<br />Best Fit With Clients<br /><br />Clients who are comfortable with introspection, who readily adopt the scientific method for exploring their own psychology, and who place credence in the basic theoretical approach of cognitive therapy, may find this approach a good match. Clients who are less comfortable with any of these, or whose distress is of a more general interpersonal nature -- such that it cannot easily be framed in terms of an interplay between thoughts, emotions and behaviours within a given environment -- may be less well served by cognitive therapy. Cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapies have often proved especially helpful to clients suffering from depression, anxiety, panic and obsessive-compulsive disorder.<br />Further Reading on Cognitive Therapy<br /><br />The Annotated Bibliography includes pointers to additional reading on this and other therapeutic approaches. The basic cognitive therapy framework is explained well by Beck (1976), and Trower, et al (1988) offer a good introduction to the modern cognitive behavioural approach.<br />At different points in life most people experience some kind of crisis. A crisis is defined as a situation or event in which a person feels overwhelmed or has difficulty coping. A crisis might be caused by an event such as the death of a family member, the loss of a job, or the ending of a relationship. During such times people experience a wide range of feelings, and each person's response to a crisis is different. It is normal to feel frightened, anxious, or depressed at such a time.<br /><br />Crisis counseling involves providing support and guidance to an individual or a group of people such as a family or community during a crisis. The purpose of crisis counseling is to decrease emotional pain, provide emotional support, make sure that the person in crisis is safe, and help develop a plan for coping with the situation. Sometimes it also involves connecting a person to other community or health services that can provide long-term support.<br /><br />Crisis counseling can be linked to health education if it is used to increase knowledge of how to avoid or cope with a crisis in the future. It can also be used to change people's attitudes and beliefs about people in crisis, and to provide people with information about help available in their community. Public health professionals, for example, might educate a community on how to cope with a natural disaster such as a hurricane or an earthquake.<br /><br />Crisis counseling is also related to health promotion. People can be taught useful skills that will help them to anticipate and cope with a crisis. Skills, information, and support services gained through crisis counseling can also help a person or a group of people to improve their health and quality of life. Crisis counseling can also be tied to health promotion through the development of health-related public policy and supportive environments. For example, public health professionals might create a policy to build crisis counseling centers or to develop a peer counseling program in high schools or colleges.<br /><br />A valuable tool for public health, crisis counseling has several advantages over other types of counseling or health services. It is relatively low-cost and simple to provide, and it is flexible and easy to learn. A wide variety of health professionals, including doctors, nurses, psychologists, and social workers, can be taught to help people through the application of crisis counseling techniques. Crisis counseling services can also be provided in a wide variety of places or settings, including hospitals, community clinics, military bases, and police stations, as well as through telephone-based services. New technologies have also created the possibility of Internet-based crisis counseling.<br /><br />Such services provide an important link between a community and the health care system. By using these resources people can sometimes get the help they need without using more expensive health care services, and they can often take advantage of twenty-four-hour crisis services. People with chronic health problems such as schizophrenia or depression can also get help from twenty-four-hour services when their physician or psychiatrist is not available. Many communities have developed peer counseling programs for specific groups such as adolescents and senior centers.<br /><br />Public health professionals who offer crisis counseling have been faced with a growing variety of issues and clients. Many communities are home to an increasing number of people from a wide variety of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. There are also more older people in society than ever before. These trends have increased the number of incidents of elder abuse, hate crimes, and cultural clashes. These types of events, along with issues such as AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), have increased the workload of crisis counselors. The field has also grown with the development of "first response" programs. Police officers, firemen, paramedics, and others are being trained to deliver on-the-spot crisis counseling. People working in public places such as stores and airline terminals are also learning how to do crisis counseling in order to deal with unhappy or violent customers. These types of programs only add to the importance of crisis counseling for individuals, families, and communities.<br /><br />Generic Counseling Principles<br />Given that crisis counseling is different from usual school counseling and<br />has the aforementioned gcals, it is useful to indicate a general strategy for<br />helping people in a crisis situation. What follows is a generic model taken<br />from the work of Lindemann (1944), Caplan (1964), and Rusk (1971) and oth¬<br />ers (see Golan, 1978; Roberts, 2000, or Slaikeu, 1990 for an exhaustive model).<br />An individual counselor will change and adapt these techniques depending<br />on the type of crisis, the age of student, and the specifics of the type of crisis.<br />Although I have outlined the principles in the general order that they are ap<br />plied in a crisis, they are not necessarily sequential in practice.In working with a pupil in crisis:<br />1. Begin counseling immediately. By definition, a crisis is a time when a<br />child is in danger of becoming extremely impaired emotionally. The longer<br />the pupil remains in a hazardous situation and is unable to take action, the<br />more difficult it will be to facilitate coping and a return to equilibrium (Nader<br />& Pynoos, 1993). When a person remains in a state of confusion without any<br />kind of human support, anxiety and pain are sure to result.<br />2. Be concerned and competent. The pupil will need a certain amount of<br />reassurance during a crisis situation. The more the counselor can present<br />him or herself as a model of competent problem solving and demonstrate<br />the process of taking in information, choosing between alternatives, and tak<br /><br />ng action, the more the child will be able to begin to function appropriately.<br />This higher functioning will come about both from a sense of safety and secu­<br />rity and from observeing a clear model. The counselor does not call atten­<br />tion to his or her competence but keeps it in the background as the counsel­<br />ing goes on.<br />3. Listen to the facts of the situation. Before proceeding, the counselor<br />must carefully gather information about the events leading up to the crisis,<br />eliciting as many details as possible. Not only will solutions come from these<br />facts, but concrete knowledge of the situation will also put into perspective<br />the pupil's behavior-Is this child behaving rationally or irrationally? Such a<br />determination allows the counselor to judge the severity of the crisis and to<br />proceed accordingly.<br />4. Reflect the individual's feelings. The counselor should explicitly focus<br />the discussion on the pupil's affective experience and encourage its appro­<br />priate expression. The objective here is not only to create empathetic under­<br />standing, but also to legitimize affect. The child must learn that feelings can<br />be discussed and are an important part of problem solving. By reflecting feel­<br />ings the counselor also “primes the pump” in that it gives the counselee a<br />way to begin and continue exploration of what occurred. Reflecting feelings<br />is an important strategy to make psychological contact (Slaikeu, 1990). Koo­<br />cher and Pollin (1994) identified eight fears associated with a medical crisis<br />that must be expressed and dealt with: Fear of loss of control, loss of self­<br />image, depencency, stigma, abandonment, isolation, death, and expressing<br />anger.<br />5. Help the child realize that the crisis event has occurred. Do not accept<br />the child's defensiveness or let the mechanisms of denial or other defensives<br />operate and prolong the crisis situation unnecessarily. Some denial may ac­<br />tually be coping, in that it gives the child a chance to be desensitized to what<br />has occurred. Prolonged or complete denial may not lead to coping. Encour­<br />age the pupil to explore the crisis events without becoming overwhelmed.<br />By asking appropriate well-timed questions, the counselor can control the<br />pace of exploration. Roberts (2000) suggested questioning to determine pre­<br />vious coping methods and dangerousness or leathality.<br />6. Do not encourage or support blaming. This strategy also is a way of<br />avoiding the pupil's defensiveness and of encouraging coping. If one can put<br />blame aside, and focus on what has occurred, the child may more quickly<br />move on. Dwelling on being a victim leaves one in a passive position rather<br />than moving on to an active role. The focus should be shifted to selfesteem<br />issues and internal strengths rather than remaining oriented toward exter­<br />nal causation and guilt.<br />7. Do not give false reassurance. The counselor should always remain<br />truthful and realistic, even though it is tempting to offer unrealistic comfort.<br />The individual in crisis will always suffer anxiety, depression, or tension, and<br /><br />-14-<br /><br />Publication Information: Book Title: Handbook of Crisis Counseling, Intervention and Prevention in the Schools. Contributors: Jonathan Sandoval - editor. Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Place of Publicat<br /><br /><br />Definition<br />Gestalt therapy is a humanistic therapy technique that focuses on gaining an awareness of emotions and behaviors in the present rather than in the past. The therapist does not interpret experiences for the patient. Instead, the therapist and patient work together to help the patient understand him/herself. This type of therapy focuses on experiencing the present situation rather than talking about what occurred in the past. Patients are encouraged to become aware of immediate needs, meet them, and let them recede into the background. The well-adjusted person is seen as someone who has a constant flow of needs and is able to satisfy those needs.<br />Description<br />Gestalt therapy has developed into a form of therapy that emphasizes medium to large groups, although many Gestalt techniques can be used in one-on-one therapy. Gestalt therapy probably has a greater range of formats than any other therapy technique. It is practiced in individual, couples, and family therapies, as well as in therapy with children.<br />Ideally, the patient identifies current sensations and emotions, particularly ones that are painful or disruptive. Patients are confronted with their unconscious feelings and needs, and are assisted to accept and assert those repressed parts of themselves.<br />The most powerful techniques involve role-playing. For example, the patient talks to an empty chair as they imagine that a person associated with an unresolved issue is sitting in the chair. As the patient talks to the "person" in the chair, the patient imagines that the person responds to the expressed feelings. Although this technique may sound artificial and might make some people feel self-conscious, it can be a powerful way to approach buried feelings and gain new insight into them.<br />Sometimes patients use battacca bats, padded sticks that can be used to hit chairs or sofas. Using a battacca bat can help a patient safely express anger. A patient may also experience a Gestalt therapy marathon, where the participants and one or more facilitators have nonstop group therapy over a weekend. The effects of the intense emotion and the lack of sleep can eliminate many psychological defenses and allow significant progress to be made in a short time. This is true only if the patient has adequate psychological strength for a marathon and is carefully monitored by the therapist.<br /><br />ransactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents, is a psychoanalytic (ie, consciously post-Freudian) theory of psychology developed by Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne during the late 1950s.<br />The fact is that TA is not only post-Freudian but according to its founder's wishes consciously extra-Freudian. That is to say that while it has its roots in psychoanalysis - since Berne was a psychoanalytic-trained psychiatrist - it was designed as a dissenting branch of psychoanalysis in that it put its emphasis on transactional, rather than "psycho-", analysis.<br />With its focus on transactions, TA shifted its attention from internal psychological dynamics to the dynamics contained in people's interactions. Rather than believing that increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas was the therapeutic path TA concentrated on the content of people's interactions with each other. Changing these interactions was TA's path to solving emotional problems.<br />In addition Berne believed in making a commitment to "curing" his patients rather than just understanding them. To that end he introduced one of the most important aspects of TA; the contract. The contract is an agreement--entered into by both client and therapist--to pursue specific changes that the client desires.<br />Revising Freud's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego, and super-ego, Berne postulated instead three "ego states"—the Parent, Adult, and Child states—which were largely shaped through childhood experiences. These three were all parts of Freud's ego: neither represented the id or superego.<br />Unhealthy childhood experiences could damage the Adult or Parent ego states, which would bring discomfort to an individual and/or others in a variety of forms, including many types of mental illness.<br />Berne considered how individuals interact with one another, and how the ego states affected each set of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions were considered to be signs of ego state problems. Analysing these transactions, according to the person's individual developmental history, would enable the person to "get better". Berne thought that virtually everyone has something problematic about their ego states and that negative behaviour would not be addressed by "treating" only the problematic individual.<br />Berne identified a typology of common counterproductive social interactions, identifying these as "games".<br />Berne presented his theories in two popular books on transactional analysis: Games People Play (1964) and What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1975). As a result of this popularity, TA came to be disdained in many[citation needed] mainstream mental health circles as an example of "pop psychology". I'm OK, You're OK (1969), written by Berne's longtime friend Thomas Anthony Harris, is probably the most popular TA book. Many TA therapists regard I'm OK, You're OK as an oversimplification or worse.<br />TA was also dismissed by the conventional psychoanalytic community[citation needed] because of its radical departures from Freudian theory. However, by the 1970s, because of its non-technical and non-threatening jargon and model of the human psyche, many of its terms and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individual approaches to psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for groups of patients, or marital/family counselees, where interpersonal (rather than intrapersonal) disturbances were the focus of treatment. Critics[1] have charged that TA—especially as loosely interpreted by those outside the more formal TA community—is a pseudoscience; when it is in fact better understood as a belief system.<br />TA's popularity in the U.S. waned in the 1970s, but it retains some popularity elsewhere in the world.[1] The more dedicated TA purists banded together in 1964 with Berne to form a research and professional accrediting body, the International Transactional Analysis Association, or ITAA. The organization is still active as of 2007.<br />TA outline<br />TA is a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change.<br />• As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured psychologically. It uses what is perhaps its best known model, the ego-state (Parent-Adult-Child) model to do this. This same model helps understand how people function and express themselves in their behaviour.<br />• As a theory of communication it extends to a method of analysing systems and organisations.<br />• It offers a theory for child development.<br />• It introduces the idea of a "Life (or Childhood) Script", that is, a story one perceives about ones own life, to answer questions such as "What matters", "How do I get along in life" and "What kind of person am I". This story, TA says, is often stuck to no matter the consequences, to "prove" one is right, even at the cost of pain, compulsion, self-defeating behaviour and other dysfunction. Thus TA offers a theory of a broad range of psychopathology.<br />• In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many types of psychological disorders, and provides a method of therapy for individuals, couples, families and groups.<br />• Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education, to help teachers remain in clear communication at an appropriate level, in counseling and consultancy, in management and communications training, and by other bodies.<br />Key ideas of TA<br />TA emphasizes a pragmatic approach, that is, it seeks to find "what works" in treating patients, and, where applicable, develop models to assist understanding of why certain treatments work. Thus, TA continually evolves. However some core models and concepts are part of TA as follows:<br />The Ego-State (or Parent-Adult-Child, PAC) model<br />At any given time, a person experiences and manifests their personality through a mixture of behaviours, thoughts and feelings. Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-states that people consistently use:<br />• Parent ("exteropsychic"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions. For example, a person may shout at someone out of frustration because they learned from an influential figure in childhood the lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating that worked.<br />• Adult ("neopsychic"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to what is going on in the "here-and-now," using all of their resources as an adult human being with many years of life experience to guide them. This is the ideal ego state, and learning to strengthen the Adult is a goal of TA. While a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective appraisal of reality.<br />• Child ("archaeopsychic"): a state in which people revert to behaving, feeling and thinking similarly to how they did in childhood. For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may respond as they did in their childhood, by looking at the floor, and feeling shame or anger, as they used to when scolded as a child.<br />Berne differentiated between the Parent, Adult and Child ego states by using capital letters when describing them; and actual adults, parents and children. The ego-states may or may not represent the relationships that they act out: In the workplace, an adult supervisor may take on the Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though he were a Child. Or a child, using his Parent eg- state, could scold his actual parent as though the parent were a Child.<br />Within each of these ego states are subdivisions. Thus Parental figures are often either nurturing (permission-giving, security-giving) or criticizing (comparing to family traditions and ideals in generally negative ways), Childhood behaviours are either natural (free) or adapted to others. Each of these tends to draw an individual to certain patterns of behaviour, feelings and ways of thinking, which may be beneficial (positive) or dysfunctional/counterproductive (negative).<br />Ego-states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud's Ego, Superego and Id, although there is an obvious parallel. Rather, ego states are consistent for each person and are argued by TA practitioners as more readily observable than the hypothetical Freudian model. In other words, the particular ego state that a given person is communicating from is determinable by external observation and experience.<br />There is no "universal" ego-state; each state is individually and visibly manifested for each person. For example, each Child ego state is unique to the childhood experiences, mentality, intellect, and family of each individual; it is not a generalised childlike state.<br />Ego states can become contaminated, for example when a person mistakes Parental rules and slogans, for here-and-now Adult reality, and beliefs are taken as facts. Or when a person "knows" that everyone is laughing at him, because "they always laughed". This would be an example of a childhood contamination, insofar as here-and-now reality is being overlaid with memories of previous historic incidents in childhood.<br />Ego states also do not correspond directly to thinking, feeling, and judging, as these behaviours are present in every ego state.<br />Berne suspected that Parent, Adult and Child ego states might be tied to specific areas of the human brain; this idea has not been proved.[1]<br />In more recent years the three ego state model has been questioned by a marginal TA group in Australia, who have devised a "two ego-state model" as a means of solving perceived theoretical problems in it:-<br />"The two ego-state model sought to correct inaccuracies in the three ego-state model Berne devised: namely, that there were Parent, Adult and Child ego-states. The two ego-state model says that there is a Child ego-state and a Parent ego-state. The Adult ego-state is placed in the Parent ego-state. The Adult ego-state is one part of the Parent ego-state. The information we learn at school is all Parent ego-state introjects. How we learn to speak, add up and learn how to think is all just copied from our teachers. Just as our morals and values are copied from our parents. There is no absolute truth where facts exist out side a person’s own belief system. Berne mistakenly concluded that there was and thus mistakenly put the Adult ego-state as separate from the Parent ego-state." For anyone interested in sourcing this deviation from mainstream TA<br />A Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapy based on modifying cognitions, assumptions, beliefs and behaviors, with the aim of influencing disturbed emotions. The general approach developed out of behavior modification, Cognitive Therapy and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, and has become widely used to treat various kinds of neurosis and psychopathology, including mood disorders and anxiety disorders. The particular therapeutic techniques vary according to the particular kind of client or issue, but commonly include keeping a diary of significant events and associated feelings, thoughts and behaviors; questioning and testing cognitions, assumptions, evaluations and beliefs that might be unhelpful and unrealistic; gradually facing activities which may have been avoided; and trying out new ways of behaving and reacting. Relaxation and distraction techniques are also commonly included. CBT is widely accepted as an evidence and empirically based, cost-effective psychotherapy for many disorders and psychological problems. It is sometimes used with groups of people as well as individuals, and the techniques are also commonly adapted for self-help manuals and, increasingly, for self-help software packages.<br />The basics<br />CBT is commonly based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion and affect), and how we act (behavior) all interact and go together. Specifically, that our thoughts influence our feelings and behavior, our feelings influence our behavior and thoughts and our behavior influence our emotions and thoughts. These modalities are therefore interrelated, and change in one modality will in all probability influence at least one of the others.[1]<br />An example will illustrate this process. Someone who, after making a mistake, thinks "I'm useless and can't do anything right." This has a negative impact on mood, making the person feel depressed; the problem may be worsened if the individual reacts by avoiding activities and then behaviorally confirming his negative belief to himself. As a result, a successful experience becomes more unlikely, which reinforces the original thought of being "useless." In therapy, the latter example could be identified as a self-fulfilling prophecy or "problem cycle," and the efforts of the therapist and client would be directed at working together to change this. This is done by addressing the way the client thinks and behaves in response to similar situations and by developing more flexible ways to think and respond, including reducing the avoidance of activities. If, as a result, the client escapes the negative thought patterns and destructive behaviors, the feelings of depression may, over time, be relieved. The client may then become more active, succeed more often, and further reduce feelings of depression.<br />The objectives of CBT typically are to identify irrational or maladaptive thoughts, assumptions and beliefs that are related to debilitating negative emotions and to identify how they are dysfunctional, inaccurate, or simply not helpful. This is done in an effort to reject the distorted cognitions and to replace them with more realistic and self-helping alternatives.<br />Cognitive behavioral therapy is not an overnight process. Even after patients have learned to recognize when and where their mental processes go awry, it can take months of concerted effort to replace any dysfunctional cognitive-affective-behavioral processes or habit with a more reasonable, salutary one.<br />The cognitive model especially emphasized in Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy says that a person's core beliefs (often formed in childhood) contribute to 'automatic thoughts' that pop up in every day life in response to situations. Cognitive Therapy practitioners hold that clinical depression is typically associated with negatively biased thinking and irrational thoughts.<br />Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used in conjunction with mood stabilizing medications to treat bipolar disorder. Its application in treating schizophrenia along with medication and family therapy is recognized by the NICE guidelines (see below) within the British NHS.<br />Cognitive Behavioral Therapy<br />CBT can be seen as an umbrella term for many different therapies that share some common elements.[2] While similar views of emotion have existed for millennia, the earliest form of Cognitive Behavior Therapy was developed by Albert Ellis (1913-2007) in the early 1950s. Ellis eventually called his approach Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, or REBT, as a reaction against popular psychoanalytic methods at the time.[1] Aaron T. Beck independently developed another CBT approach, called Cognitive Therapy, in the 1960s.[3] Cognitive therapy rapidly became a favorite intervention to study in psychotherapy research in academic settings. In initial studies, it was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. However, in recent years, cognitive and behavioral techniques have often been combined into cognitive behavioral treatment. This is arguably the primary type of psychological treatment being studied in research today.<br />Concurrently with the pioneering contributions of Ellis and Beck, starting in the late 1950s and continuing through the 1970s, Arnold A. Lazarus developed what was arguably the first form of "Broad-Spectrum" Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. Indeed, in 1958, Arnold Lazarus was the first person to introduce the terms "behavior therapy" and "behavior therapist" into the professional literature (i.e., Lazarus, A. A. New methods in psychotherapy: a case study. South African Medical Journal, 1958, 32, 660-664).[citation needed] He later broadened the focus of behavioral treatment to incorporate cognitive aspects (e.g., see Arnold Lazarus' 1971 landmark book "Behavior Therapy and Beyond," perhaps the first clinical text on CBT). When it became clear that optimizing therapy's effectiveness and effecting durable treatment outcomes often required transcending more narrow focused cognitive and behavioral methods, Arnold Lazarus expanded the scope of CBT to include physical sensations (as distinct from emotional states), visual images (as distinct from language-based thinking), interpersonal relationships, and biological factors. The final product of Arnold Lazarus' approach to psychotherapy is called Multimodal Therapy and is, perhaps, the most comprehensive form of CBT in addition to REBT that also shares many of the same assumptions and theorizing.<br />Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy (CBGT) is a similar approach in treating mental illnesses, based on the protocol by Richard Heimberg.[4] In this case, clients participate in a group and recognize they are not alone in suffering from their problems.<br />A sub-field of cognitive behavioral therapy used to treat Obsessive Compulsive Disorder makes use of classical conditioning through extinction (a type of conditioning) and habituation. (The specific technique, Exposure with Response Prevention (ERP) has been demonstrated to be more effective than the use of medication—typically SSRIs—alone). CBT has also been successfully applied to the treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder, health anxiety, Social phobia and Panic Disorder. In recent years, CBT has been used to treat symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations. This use has been developed in the UK by Douglas Turkington and David Kingdon.<br />Other types of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy include Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Self-Instructional Training, Schema-Focused Therapy and many others.[5]<br />CBT has a good evidence base in terms of its effectiveness in reducing symptoms and preventing relapse. It has been clinically demonstrated in over 400 studies to be effective for many psychiatric disorders and medical problems for both children and adolescents. It has been recommended in the UK by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence as a treatment of choice for a number of mental health difficulties, including post-traumatic stress disorder, OCD, bulimia nervosa and clinical depression.<br />Cognitive Behavioral Therapy most closely allies with the Scientist-Practitioner Model of Clinical Psychology, in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective; clear operationalization of the "problem" or "issue;" an emphasis on measurement (and measurable changes in cognition and behavior); and measurable goal-attainment.<br />Depression<br />Negative thinking dominates when a person experiences depression. The depressed person can experience negative thoughts as being beyond their control, thereby allowing them to become automatic and self-perpetuating.<br />Negative thinking can be categorized into a number of common patterns called "cognitive distortions." The cognitive therapist provides techniques to give the client a greater degree of control over negative thinking by correcting these distortions or correcting thinking errors that abet the distortions, in a process called cognitive restructuring.<br />Negative thoughts in depression are generally about one or more of three areas: negative view of self, negative view of the world and negative view of the future. These constitute what Beck called the "cognitive triad."<br />Attributional style<br />An approach to depression based upon attribution theory in social psychology is related to the concept of attributional style. First put forth by Lyn Abramson and her colleagues in 1978, this approach argues that depressives have a typical attributional style —they tend to attribute negative events in their lives to stable and global characteristics of themselves.[6] There is considerable evidence that depressives do exhibit such an attributional style, but it is important to remember that Abramson et al. do not claim that an attributional style of this nature is necessarily going to cause depression — only that it will lead to clinical depression if combined with a negative event. This theory is sometimes known as a revised version of learned helplessness theory.<br />In 1989, this theory was challenged by Hopelessness Theory.[7] This theory emphasised attributions to global and stable factors, rather than, as in the original model, internal attributions. Hopelessness Theory also emphasises that beliefs about the consequences of events and rated importance of events may be at least as important in understanding why some people react to negative events with clinical depression as are causal attributions.<br />The ABCs of Irrational Beliefs<br />A major aid in cognitive therapy is what Albert Ellis called the ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs.[1] The first three steps analyze the process by which a person has developed irrational beliefs and may be recorded in a three-column table.<br />• A - Activating Event or objective situation. The first column records the objective situation, that is, an event that ultimately leads to some type of high emotional response or negative dysfunctional thinking.<br />• B - Beliefs. In the second column, the client writes down the negative thoughts that occurred to him or her.<br />• C - Consequence. The third column is for the negative disturbed feelings and dysfunctional behaviors that ensued. The negative thoughts of the second column are seen as a connecting bridge between the situation and the distressing feelings. The third column C is next explained by describing emotions or negative thoughts that the client thinks are caused by A. These could be anger, sorrow, anxiety, etc.<br />For example, Gina is upset because she got a low mark on a math test. The Activating event, A, is that she failed her test. The Belief, B, is that she must have good grades or she is worthless. The Consequence, C, is that Gina feels depressed.<br />• Reframing. After irrational beliefs have been identified, the therapist will often work with the client in challenging the negative thoughts on the basis of evidence from the client's experience by reframing it, meaning to re-interpret it in a more realistic light. This helps the client to develop more rational beliefs and healthy coping strategies.<br />From the example above, a therapist would help Gina realize that there is no evidence that she must have good grades to be worthwhile, or that getting bad grades is awful. She desires good grades, and it would be good to have them, but it hardly makes her worthless. If she realizes that getting bad grades is disappointing, but not awful, and that it means she is currently bad at math or at studying, but not as a person, she will feel sad or frustrated, but not depressed. The sadness and frustration are likely healthy negative emotions and may lead her to study harder from then on.<br /><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nickheap.co.uk/">Home</a><br />Counselling Skills<br />Why are these important skills now?<br />The speed and complexity of modern life continue to increase as do people's expectations from it. Coping well requires autonomous and flexible thinking and clear decisions. Unfortunately most of us have been conditioned to conform, not think for ourselves.<br />Counselling skills help people to change as they learn to think things through for themselves and make their own decisions, free of the effects of past conditioning.<br />What is counselling for?<br />When we seek, or accept, help with an issue we have been unable to resolve on our own, there is often an emotional component in the situation. We often feel bad about needing help. The problem may itself cause confusing feelings "I like my boss but she/he drives me mad doing X, dare I level with her/him?". In the latter case feelings of liking, irritation and anxiety are present together.<br />It is extremely difficult to think clearly when we are feeling strong feelings whether good or bad. The primary function of counselling is to help people think clearly when feelings are present. The feelings can arise from an experience in the present. Hearing "Your job is redundant" would obviously generate negative feelings in most people. Someone who got into trouble with head teachers at school might equally find meeting a senior administrator intimidating. This would remind that person of the earlier painful experience. He or she would then find it hard to think.<br />What are counselling skills?<br />The counsellor's job is to help the other person, the client, help him/her self. If the client is to feel safe enough to be open about her/his thoughts and feelings, he/she needs to feel safe, respected and understood. I list some skills below.<br />The counsellor must<br />So that the client can<br />Listen<br />Develop his/her thinking<br />Not judge<br />Feel safe and respected<br />Pay attention<br />Know you care<br />Accept the client's feelings<br />Know he/she is not being judged<br />Understand the client's world and feelings, put yourself in the client's shoes. Express that understanding.<br />Know you are with him/her<br />Think about the client<br />Get the best help possible<br />The counsellor may<br />So that the client can<br />Ask questions<br />Develop her/his own thinking<br />Summarise<br />Hear her/his thoughts and know she/he is understood.<br />Ask the client to try new behaviour in the counselling session<br />Release blocking emotion such as. unexpressed anger or sadness.<br />Counsellors should not<br />This will make the client<br />Argue<br />Defensive<br />Dwell on their own difficulties<br />Withdraw<br />Solve the problem for the client<br />Dependant<br />Give advice<br />Dependant or hostile<br />Belittle the clients' concern<br />Withdraw or attack<br />Avoid painful areas<br />Be frustrated<br />How does counselling work?<br />I assume that all humans have immense potential and are intrinsically intelligent, powerful, co-operative, zestful and loving. Unfortunately, this basic nature is often obscured as we grow older.<br />Our nature is such that we are easily hurt and when hurting our thinking process shuts down. When we act without thinking, the consequences often cause further hurts (distress) which reduce our capacity to think in the situation still further. We then behave in a rigid, stereotyped way every time we experience a situation that reminds us enough of the original situation in which we were hurt. This complex process develops rigid (patterned) responses to situations rather than a flexible appropriate response.<br /> Fortunately, we had highly effective mechanisms for discharging our hurts and thus recovering our ability to think in any situation. A child that is experiencing, or has experienced hurt, will typically find someone, often an adult, and get this person to pay attention to him/her. The child will then talk actively, laugh, sweat, shake, have a tantrum (storm), cry or yawn. If the adult can stay in touch with the child, perhaps offer a warm hug or hold a hand, the child will discharge the painful emotion exhaustively and then go back to playing etc. quite freely and with no rigidities installed by the hurtful experience.<br />The above describes the counselling process in its natural state. Unfortunately most adults have had their discharge processes thoroughly interfered with in their childhood so will suppress the exhaustive discharge required because it disturbs them. Children quickly learn that discharging painful emotion is punished and learn further rigid ways of controlling their feelings, when discharging them would be helpful.<br />In the counselling process the counsellor provides the love, safety and attention necessary for the client to feel her/his feelings and discharge them. The feelings that condition behaviour in rigid patterns may arise from present hurts or past hurts. It is necessary for the counsellor to examine many ways to identify and outwit the client's patterns, including the control patterns, so they can discharge.<br />Isolation is a component in almost all hurts so simple, warm, attentive listening is often enough. Where it is not, the counsellor has to listen well enough to understand where the client is hurting. Then he or she must think how to show to the client that the rigid injunctions he/she feels are distress not reality and do so. An example could be a client whose hurt is about being accommodating and being exploited who says "I have to put up with it, I am lucky to have a job". The counsellor might ask the client to stand proudly and say in a confident tone "I am NOT going to be a victim ever again". S/he would find this difficult to say and would laugh, cry, sweat and perhaps get angry trying to do so. This would, when persisted in, discharge the hurts that installed the victim pattern in the first place. Following discharge, the client can think clearly about the painful experiences and decide what to do freely without the compulsion of the "victim" pattern.<br />There are literally hundreds of techniques like the above to deal with particular distresses.<br />What are the implications for organisations?<br />Staggering! Most of the problems of organisations require people to work together to solve them. Listening is the key skill required. Counselling training is the best way to get people to appreciate the value of listening and want to listen well.<br />Organisational performance depends on the quality of the thinking of staff at all levels. Counselling enhances the ability of the client to think and his/her willingness to act powerfully.<br /><br /> <br />COGNITIVE LEARNING<br />A change in the way information is processed as a result of experiences that a person or animal has had.<br /><br />PLACE LEARNING<br />The learner is shown events to be associated but no reinforcement is given for particular responses. The learner is often but not always, physically restrained, so that no movement is possible when the new information is given.<br /><br />IMITATION AND MODELING<br />A person watches or hears someone else say or do something and attempts to copy it.<br />Ability to model one’s own behavior.<br /><br />INSIGHT LEARNING<br />It is a form of learning in which there is a perceptual reorganization of one’s experience. It can be partly explained as a transfer from previous learning in which the individual has formed learning sets- that is learned learn.MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-44362542964873783192008-03-27T10:08:00.003+04:302008-03-27T10:16:54.601+04:30Community Organisation Notes<h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </h3><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">UNIT II HISTORY OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Contents:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Aims and objectives</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Introduction</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Philosophy of community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal">History of community organization- USA.,UK and India</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Gandhian Approach to Community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Models of community<span style=""> </span>organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Approaches to community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Overview of Rothman<span style=""> </span>Model. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.1Aims and objectives:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">This unit aims at familiarizing you with the historical development and philosophy of community organization. You will also be introduced to different approaches and various models of community organization with a special reference to Indian situation. After studying this unit you should be able to:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Outline the History of community organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Discuss the philosophy of community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Analyze various approaches and models of community organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Discuss the spirit of community organization in India and develop a positive attitude towards developmental efforts in India.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Critically examine the past efforts and discuss the emergence of new trends in community organization. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.2INTRODUCTION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The previous chapters have given you a birds eye view on the concept of community organization and its various principles. As you are already aware that, It has been practiced as a method of social work in the western countries; especially in England and USA. However, Little has been written about the history of community organization. Community organization is a process and is all about solving the present day today problems of common interests by way of adopting democratic principles and peoples participation. People have used this method in the past and have attained desired results. Thus, it is important for the students of community organization to understand the past, draw lessons from it and develop and experiment new models and methods required to work with community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">In this chapter, we will be dealing with the History of community organization in England, USA and provide you with a brief idea about the community organization practice in India. In the later part of the chapter, we will also discuss some of the models and approaches of community organization..</p> <p class="MsoNormal">WHY SHOULD WE STUDY HISTORY? </p> <p class="MsoNormal">We can learn a lot from the history, that variety of social- change groups faced with long odds and with slim beginnings won out in the end. History makes us clear that slow times need not mean the death of hope. But lends us patience while teaching us persistence. The strategies adopted in the past provide us concrete lessons on tactics and approaches allowing each generation to build on the knowledge of its predecessors. It is all about the problems the people experienced and the solution they achieved.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">In short, history sensitizes us to the problems and possibilities of change, provides concrete advice for the present-day action, and sustain our action with the hope and pride that comes from learning of past experience. Therefore, the study of the History of community organization becomes essential for a social worker.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The term "community organization covers a series of activities at the community level aimed at bringing about desired improvement in the social well being of individuals, groups and neighborhoods". Community organizing is about creating a </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Democratic instrument to bring about sustained social change. According to Murray G.Ross, " Community organization is a process by which a community identifies needs and takes action, and in doing so... develops co-operative attitudes and practices."</p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.3. PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The early attempts in community organization were an outcome of the serious problems i.e. problems of unemployment, poverty etc. faced by the communities. Thus grew up many organisations and social agencies to provide support to the community. Soon, it was realized that all these efforts need to be co-ordinated and streamlined so as to avoid duplicity of work and to reduce the gap in the delivery of services to the community.<span style=""> </span>At one point of time we might ask, What has been the driving force behind all these efforts that prompted the people of Good will to render services to the community?<span style=""> </span>Let us look at the Philosophy of Community Organization, which may throw some light on this theme.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The fundamental aspect of the community organizations is the principle of " Co-operative spirit" which promotes the people to unite together to address a common issue.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Community organization recognizes the spirit of democratic values and principles and community organization is about is creating democratic involvement.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Organizing is about empowering. When people unite together, barring all discriminations and get involved in the community organizations, they develop confidence. This empowerment comes when people learn skills to help themselves and others. The collective action helps in community building.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The community organization recognizes the power of individual. It believes, through the collective strength of the people, better teamwork and adopting scientific methods can make comprehensive social problems.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another Philosophy is that of coordination. It is concerned with the adjustments and inter-relations of the forces in the community life for a common welfare. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Community organization is therefore, is a continuous process in which adjustments are made and remade to keep pace with the changing conditions of community life. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.4. HISTORY OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In a broad sense we can say wherever people have lived together, some form of organisations has emerged. These informal associations of people always tried to do good to the people in need and protect the rights of the society. On the contrary the history talks about the formal organizations which were set up for the welfare of the community. The first efforts at community organization for social welfare were initiated in England to overcome the acute problem of poverty, which led to beggary.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The first effort of its kind was the Elizabethan poor law (1601) in England, which was set up to provide services to the needy. Another important landmark in the history of community organization is the formation of London Society of organizing charitable relief and repressing mendicancy and the Origin of the settlement house Movement in England during 1880.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In fact, these movements had a major impact in the United States of America. In 1880 the Charities organization was set up to put rational order in the area of charity and relief. The major community organization activities in the United States could be classified in to three periods:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The Charity organization period. 1870-1917:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">This era is the beginnings in social welfare in USA. The first citywide (COS) Charity organization Society was established in the Buffalo in 1877 in USA. This movement was started with the influence of London Charity organization established in 1869. In USA, Rev.S.H.Gurteen, an English priest who had an association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873 gave the leadership to this movement an English priest who had an association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873. With in a short span of six years the COS had reached to more than 25 American cities.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Charity organization was concerned about two things:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Providing adequate personal services to families and individuals in need</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Take steps to address the issues/problems in social welfare.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Apart from this services the COS also took initiatives in promoting co-operation among the various welfare agencies. From this movement of charity organization emerged many other such service oriented organisations i.e. Social service exchange, Community welfare councils, councils of social agencies </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">2. The rise of Federation <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>1917 to 1935</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">It is period where we can see the growth and development of chests and councils. It started with the rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with the enactment of social security act, which set the stage for development of the public welfare programs in 1935. A large number of chests and councils came up after world war 1.The American Association for Community Organization was organized in 1918 as the national agency for chests and councils and it later became known as community chests and councils of<span style=""> </span>(CCC) America. The Cincinnati Public Health Federation, established in 1917 was the first independent health council in American City. It is in this period that the American Association of social workers organized in 1921, the first general professional organisations, set up its training for the social workers and others who specialized in community organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency, co-operative organization of citizens and welfare agencies, which is the powerful local force for community welfare origination that handles large funds. It has two functions. It raises funds through a community -wide appeal and distributes them according to a systematic budget procedure. Secondly it promotes co-operative planning. co-ordination and<span style=""> </span>administration of<span style=""> </span>the communities<span style=""> </span>social welfare.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">3. Period of Expansion and professional Development 1935 to present time.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">It is in this period the we see the greater use of the community organization process in the filed of public welfare. A marked significance of this era is the establishment of Federal Security Agency where we see the maximized involvement of the Govt. in welfare programs. In 1946 the agency was strengthened and re-organized following which in 1953 Department of Health, education and Welfare was established. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another important factor of the period is about the professional development that took place. Some of the important professional developments are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The National Conference of Social work in 1938-39 undertook a study on community organization, which later publicized the nature of "Generic Community welfare organization". Based on this another study took place in 1940, but due to America involvement in World War II an active program could not take off.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In 1946, at the National conference of social work in Buffalo, the Association of the study of community organization (ASCO) was organized. The main objective was to improve the professional practice of organization for social welfare. In 1955, ASCO merged with six other professional organisations to form the National Association of social workers. Community organization has been recognized as integral and important aspect of social work education in the American Association of Schools of social work education. At present thee is an active committee of Council on social work education involved in the production of teaching materials in community organization.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The first contemporary textbook on community organization titled " Community Organization for social welfare " published in 1945 has been written by Wayne McMilen's .</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another development in the history of community development is seen in the wake of World War II. Wartime needs were very special and crucial. During this time many councils and community war services came to the forefront. Among them (USO) united service organization is of prime importance as it was the union of many forces that served the needs of the military personnel and defense communities. The other striking characteristics of the period is the immense increase in the volunteer service i.e. defense council, American Red Cross and USO which co-ordinated and recruited the volunteers. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another development that took place at the wartime is the growth of closer relationship between labor and social work, which is considered as great significance to community origination.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The other developments that took place after the World War II are as follows that are very specific to community organization area as follows.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Mental health planning, problems of the aging </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In order to address theses issues separate bodies were set up and we see the entry of international agencies in the field of community origination. The present situation in community organization is the emergence of the new community development programs, which aims at providing, services to the less developed areas in the international social welfare. Therefore the present agenda is on working with the whole community and a greater emphasis on self -help.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">COMUNITYORGANISATION IN U.K:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Baldock (1974) has summed up the historical development in U.K.<span style=""> </span>by diving it in to four phases.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The first Phase: - 1880-1920: During this period the community work was mainly seen as a method of social work. It was considered as a process of helping the individuals to enhance their social adjustments. It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work of voluntary agencies.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The second phase: - 1920-1950: This period saw the emergence of new ways of dealing with social issues and problems. The community organization was closely associated with central and state Govt.'s program for urban development. The important development in this period was its association with community association movement.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The third phase 1950 onwards: - it emerged as a reaction to the neighborhood idea, which provided an ideological phase for the second phase. It was period we see the professional development of social work. Most of the educators and planners tried to analyze the shortcomings in the existing system. It was also a period where the social workers sought for a professional identity. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">The forth phase: It is a period that has marked the involvement of the community action. It questioned the very relationship of the community work and social work. It was thus seen as period of radical social movement and we could see the conflicts of community with authority. The association of social workers and the community were de-professionalised during this period. Thus it was during this period the conflictual strategies that were introduced in the community work, although even now there is no consensus on this issue (Baldock 1974).<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">HISTORY OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN INDIA</p> <p class="MsoNormal">A historical account of the community organization is not available in India, as there has been only a rare documentation on social work literature in general and community organization in particular.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Community organization has its roots in the Charity organizations in the United States. They realized the need of the people and tied to organize the people to coordinate their work. The main activities were social welfare, raising funds, seeking enactment for the social legislation and co-ordination of welfare activities. The spirit behind all these activities was charity. In India, the very concept of charity is deep rooted in the religious philosophy. Even before the commencement of the social work education in India in 1937, the community work was in place. But in the first phase from 1937 t0 1952 the community work was in a dormant stage. During this period the social work was in its infancy and not many were employed in the community settings because. There were hardly any jobs that provided an opening for community organization. Professionals preferred to work in casework settings. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">It was in 1952 the community development project was launched in India and with this we find the emergence of a new era of community work. The basic objective of community development in India was to awaken the rural people of their needs, instilling in them a sense of ambition for better life and making them aware of their right and power to find a solution for their problems. According to Mukerji (1961) Community development is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and if possible with the initiative of community" According to him community development can be divided in to two process. 1.Extension education 2.Community organization. Extension education was expected to improve the quality of human beings by improving his/her knowledge and skills. By community organization Mukerji had in mind the setting up of three institutions in the village.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Village Panchayat</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The village co-operative</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The village school</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">During this period the thrust of the community work remained rural where as social work remained urban in character.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">From 1970 onwards we could see a new trend in the community work practice. The social workers expanded their scope and operational area from their traditional approach of casework. to other developments fields. For example people working with school children started working with the community. The Ngo's and voluntary organization adopted a community approach. This shift has in-fact led to the use of process of community work. By and large the community work has remained welfare -oriented.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The current phase of community work in India is experiencing a growing dissatisfaction with its own practice or rather the out come of its practice. So efforts are on to create alternate ways of working with communities. In-spite of these, the professionals is involved in a variety of projects in both rural and urban areas to promote better living for the community. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another trend in the community work is the involvement of the Business houses in promoting welfare in their neighborhood. This is commonly known as CSR. (Corporate social responsibilities) The business houses i.e. Tats, Escorts, and some of the multinational companies too have joined in this venture. This trend has attracted many professionals in this field </p> <p class="MsoNormal">The main objective of community development is to develop village communities by methods, which will stimulate, encourage and aid villagers themselves to do much of the work necessary to accomplish the desired goals. The changes conceived and promoted should have the involvement of the people and should be acceptable to them and put in to practice by them.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">THE DIFFERENCE:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">There is a common philosophical base between community organization and community development. Both aims to enable people to live happily and fully developed life. Both have basic faith in the common man and his right to self-determination in the framework of the society. Both give emphasis to self-help and help the people to help themselves to solve their own problems. However, community organization and community development should not be considered as synonymous.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CD is concerned with the promotion of all aspects of life including social, economical and cultural; both in rural and urban areas. While CO is concerned with adjustment of social welfare needs and resources in cities, states, Nations as well as in villages?</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CO is practiced in the USA on a voluntary basis. While CD in almost all the developing countries is a government-sponsored program.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CO is a product of urbanization and industrialization. Here the main concern is problems of the population mobility, problems of the family, problems of the aged, problems of the juvenile delinquency, of unemployment and provision of social security. But CD is concerned with how to induce people to meet their basic human needs.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CO tends to be more process oriented while CD as practiced in India tends to be target oriented. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.5 GANDHIAN APPROACH TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Gandhi has not given a literary definition of the term community. For him the village is the basic community with geographical limitation where a number of families come together and co-operate to build a common life. According to Gandhi the basic element of a community is mutual co-operation and common sharing.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The emphasis of Gandhian concept of community organization is the reconstruction of the community rather than on organizing of an unorganized or disorganized community or on the development of entirely a new community. Therefore the Gandhian objective of community organization is to reconstruct the village communities spread all over the country. This construction is based on the 19 item constructive program designed to meet the social welfare needs of the community.<span style=""> </span>It is through the construction of the village community Gandhi aims to realize he goal of reconstructing the "sarvodaya Social order". Gandhi has not given any specific or fixed pattern for the reconstruction program but left it to the capacity of those community organizers and to suit to the different conditions and social situations.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The role of the worker in this approach is very distinct. Here, the worker not only deals with those groups of people or communities who seek his guidance but he would also would approach those communities, which do not ask for help as his prime work being the reconstruction of the society. In this approach the worker takes initiatives and gradually stimulates the community .It demands the regularity and sincerity of the worker in the reconstruction program.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.6 MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION</p> <p class="MsoNormal">WHAT IS A MODEL?</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Before we proceed to understand the different methods and models of community organization it is wise to understand the terminology. What is a model?</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Model:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">It is a medium through which a person looks at the complex realities. Model is a simplistic version of a complex situation. Models serve as a reference for the work and give us a clear understanding of what would happen. They describe strategies for accomplishing a vision, the appropriate steps to be taken to get there. Some models grow out of the specific ideologies of change and some in response to concrete situations.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.7.MODEL OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION BY ROTHMAN:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Since 100 years people in various situations, countries have been trying to address the issues of social welfare .The study of the history helps us to know the drastic changes that took place. A major shift from the charity approach to the professional delivery of services. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Jack Rothman has introduced three basic models of community organization. They are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Locality development</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Social planning</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Social Action</p> <p class="MsoNormal">1.MODEL A- LOCALITY DEVELOPMENT:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Locality development model is a method of working with community groups .It was earlier used by the settlement houses. Here the important focus is about the process of community building. Leadership development and the education of the participants are the essential elements in the process.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">According to Murray Ross the "process of self help and communal action is valuable in its own right". The model of locality development is based on this particular thought process. It originated from the traditional community organization practice. The main focus of this model is whole community or a part of it. The basic belief is that communities have some common needs and interests and once the people realize this need and work together democratically they can take appropriate steps to improve the quality of life.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Here the role of the community organizer is to enhance the involvement of the people in the community and help the community to plan and help them find a solution to the problem. It is similar to work of community development, which is done in the underdevelopment world.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">It refers to the community organization practice when a worker or an agency attempts to develop various schemes and programs to meet the needs of the target population in a defined area. It also includes coordination of various agencies providing a variety of services in the area.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.MODEL B- SOCIAL PLANNING:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">It refers to the type of community work where a worker or agency undertakes an exercise of evaluating welfare needs and existing services in the area and suggests a possible blue print for a more efficient delivery of services, it is termed as social planning. It is concerned with social problems For example. Housing, education, health, childcare and so on. Its aim is to affect a large population. The community planner works in greater capacity with the government and is often identified with power structure of the community but interested in the needs and attitudes of the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">3.MODEL C- SOCIAL ACTION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">According to Friedlander,W.A. ( 1963) " Social Action is<span style=""> </span>an individual, group or community effort within the framework of the social work philosophy and practice that aims to achieve social progress, to modify social policies and to improve social<span style=""> </span>legislation<span style=""> </span>and health and welfare services". Another model of community organization suggested by Rothman<span style=""> </span>is that of social action. According to him social action is a strategy used by groups or sub communities or even national organisations that feel that they have inadequate power and resources to meet their needs. So they confront with the power structure using conflict as a method to solve their issues related to inequalities and deprivation.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In this type of community organisations the community organizer uses all means to pressure the power structure to give in to demands. The role of organizers may differ depending the issues they get involved in. The role may be of advocate, activist, agitator, broker or negotiator. It is a process. This organizing process goes through different stage .So the role of the organizer will also change as per the roles of the organisor at each stage. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">This model was commonly used during the 1960's. This has been used as a means to redress the social problems of the nation, redistribute the resources and power to the poor and powerless.<span style=""> </span>Social action as model has an important role in community organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">A comparative statement of the models outlined by Rothman (1979)</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Source: Rothman (1979)</p> <p class="MsoNormal">DIMENSION OF COMPARIONSLOCALITY DEVELOPMENTSOCIAL PLANINGSOCIAL ACTIONGoalSelf-help and common integrationProblem solving of substantive community problemsShifting power and resourcesAssumptions</p> <p class="MsoNormal">DemocraticSociety lacks viable relationships and problem solving capacitySubstantiate social problem exits like.<span style=""> </span>poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment<span style=""> </span>Disadvantaged population/society.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Injustice and inequality.StrategyInvolvement of<span style=""> </span>broad sections of community in determining and solving problemsFact gathering, rational decision making, enabling an effective course of actionOrganize people to take action against targets.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Methods</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Improve community relations among different groups in bringing consensus</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Build consensus or induce conflictInduce conflict through</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Direct action</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Negotiation</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Confrontation Agency types</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Agencies</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Settlement house, Consumer association, Welfare councils,</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning bodiesSocial movements</p> <p class="MsoNormal">.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.8.APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The History has witnessed diversity of efforts in the community organization and the emergence of new initiatives in the field. Most often these of community organizing efforts are centered on identity communities and issue-specific communities. History gives us a list of different kind of community organizing methods. One such community organizing which the twentieth century has witnessed is the growth of neighborhood organizing. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood organizing:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood organizing is one form of community organizing. This nothing but an effort by the community to solve the day to day problems and help those in need.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">There are three type approaches to neighborhood organizing.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The social work Approach</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Political Activists Approach</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood maintenance/Community development Approach</p> <p class="MsoNormal">1.The social work Approach:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In this approach, the society is viewed as a social organism and therefore the efforts are oriented towards building a sense of community. The community organizer whose role is of an "enabler or an advocate " helps the community identify a problem in the neighborhood and strives to achieve the needed social resources by gathering the existing the social services and by lobbying with some in power to meet the needs of the neighborhood. This method is more consensual and the neighborhood is seen as a collective client. One example of this approach is the social settlement movement USA and war on poverty program of the Johnson administration in the 1960s.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.The political Activists Approach:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community organizing is the founder of this approach .He emerged as a community organizer in the 1930s.The basic philosophy of this approach is based on his thinking that " more representative the organization the stronger the organization." </p> <p class="MsoNormal">In this approach the community is seen as a political entity and not as a social organism. Here, the neighborhood is viewed as a potential power base capable of getting power. The role of the community organizer is to help the community understand the problem in terms of power and necessary steps are taken to mobilize the community. The problem of the neighborhood is always identified as absence of power and in the interest of gaining power for the neighborhood the organizers are faced with conflicts with groups, interests and elities. Since most of the community organizers come from out side the community, it has faced the problems of equality of power relations and leadership in the community.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Unlike the social work approach to community organization this approach has the potential to create stable, democratic and effective organisations of neighborhood residents by seeing its role as " meeting power with power"</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood maintenance/Community development Approach:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">This approach has emerged out of both the previous approaches namely within the same neighborhood movements. It is seen in the form of civic associations. This association uses peer group pressure to provide services in the community. They use this strategy to pressurize the officials to deliver services to the community but sometimes this approach takes the form of political activists approach as they realize that their goals can be only achieved only through confrontations.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">In this approach we see the characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and confrontation and these organisations view themselves as more proactive and development minded.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">2.9.MODELS OF ROTHMAN:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">It is important to have a theoretical frame work to work in the community. This theoretical framework facilitates the worker to adopt strategies and helps him choose the type of focus he/she wants to maintain in the professional practice. Rothman has given three models of practice, which are as follows:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood development model</p> <p class="MsoNormal">System Change model</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Structural change model</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">1.Neighbourhood development Model:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Neighborhood Model is the oldest model of community organization. This model has been practiced in India and in some of the underdeveloped countries. It has been used in the developmental activities. In general it is believed that people living in a neighborhood have the capacity to meet the problems they come across in their day to day life through their own efforts and resources. The main aspect here is that the community realizes its needs and takes appropriate steps to meet the needs of the community, which will bring greater satisfaction to all its members both individually and collectively. The role of the worker in this model is to induce a process that will sensitize the community and make the community realize its needs. Based on the value of self-sustenance the worker energizes the community and makes the community self-reliant, and not merely depending on the help form out side. So rather than providing services in the community, the communities are energized to meet its own needs. This model encourages the people to think for themselves rather than doing things for them.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Some of the steps in this model are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Identifying the geographical area for your intervention</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Making your way to the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Understand the community and identify the felt needs</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Making an appropriate program</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning for resource mobilization</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Developing a strong net-work in the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning for withdrawal from the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal">2. SYSTEM CHANGE MODEL:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">As the name suggests, the system change model aims at developing strategies to either restructure or modify the system. Thus it is termed as "System Change approach to community work. Although we find glimpses of this model gaining more acceptance, this has not become very popular. We know of various mechanisms that cater to the needs of the society. Such as education, health services housing, women empowerment, and employment. All these services are rooted through various systems and all these systems do have sub-systems. The fundamental aspect in this model is that the due to various reasons the systems become dysfunctional. For example the system of education as we have it today, reveals that the cities have better educational faculties as compared to the rural areas. This system (education policy) of education has generated disparities in the society. I.e. access to education, lack of basic facilities, trained staff, etc. The system instead of becoming a tool of empowering mechanism brings disparities between people of different socio-economic condition.<span style=""> </span>So the system has failed to achieve its objectives. Thus the worker on observing this disfunction in the community finds it important to develop strategies to restructure or modify the system.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Some of the tasks in this model are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Understanding the deficiencies in the system.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Communicating the findings with the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Making strategies to influence the decision making bodies. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Mobilizing peoples participation and seeking out-side support to translate the plan in to concrete action.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Making alliances and partnerships with other NGOS and comminutes to demand a change.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">3.STRUCTURAL CHANGE MODEL:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">One of the most difficult and rarely practiced models of community work is structural change model. The society consists of small communities and it is nothing but "a web of relationships". These relationships of the people are formally structured by the respective countries' state policies, law and constitutions and informally by its customs, traditions etc. that determines the social rights of the individuals. The social structure in some of the societies is controlled by the state. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Understanding the macro- structure of social relationship and its impact on the micro realities, the worker tries to mobilize the public opinion to radically change the macro-structure.<span style=""> </span>Thus the structural change model aims to bring a new social order, an alternative form of society which will transform the existing conditions at the micro-level. This can happen only if an alternative form of political ideology is adopted. This form of community work may originate from a community itself but it has a wider coverage coverage i.e. the entire society or nation. Sometimes this takes the shape of social action, which is an another method of social work profession. Since the general situation in the developing countries is very peculiar, it is very difficult for the community worker to actually practice this model.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">A social worker may initiate this model. But it is very difficult to predict the success. However, he s makes attempt to saw the seeds of social change by adopting a political ideology .It might take decades to actually perceive any transformation in the society nevertheless one can be proud of being the agent of social change.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">The special tasks involved these models are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Understanding the relation ships between macro- and micro social realities. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Adopting an alternative political ideology.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Sharing with the family members/faculty members</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Helping the communities</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Helping the communities to identify a course of action. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">To prepare the community to sustain its interests, enthusiasm and capacity to met the strains that may arise out of the conflict with the existing power structure. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">LET US SUM UP:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Notes: 1) Write your answer in the space provided</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">What do you understand by neighborhood development model?</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CHECK YOUR PROGRESS II</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Notes: 1) Write your answer in the space provided</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Describe in brief about the historical development of community organization in USA. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">CHECK YOUR PROGRESS III</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Notes: 1) Write your answer in the space provided</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Write a short note on the historical development of community organization in India and discuss the relevance of Gandhian approach.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">CHECK YOUR PROGRESS IV</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Notes: 1) Write your answer in the space provided</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Write a short note on philosophy of community organization?</p> <p class="MsoNormal">SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Arthur Dunham: Community welfare organization, Principles and practice, Thomas Y.Crowell Co., New York, 1958, pp23.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Murray Ross, Community Organization-Theory and Principles, Harper Bros., New York, 1955.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Ronald Lippitt,J Watson and B. Westly, The Dynamics of Planned Change, A comparative Study of Principles and Technique, Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1958.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Robert Moriis and Robert Binstok, Feasible Planning for social change, Columbia University Press, New York, 158.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Walter A. Friendlander and Robert Z. Apte: Introduction to Social welfare, Prentice-Hall India Private Limited, 1982.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Steiner Frederick Jesse: Community organization, The New century Co. New York 1958.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Siddiqui H.Y: Working with communities an introduction to community work, Hira Publications, New Delhi, 1997</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Dayal Parameshwari: Gandhian Approach to Social Work, Gujrat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad, 1986</p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Social Work Intervention with Communities and Institutions<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Unit- 1: Community Organisation: Concept and Principles<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Contents:<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Aim and Objectives</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Introduction</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Meaning and Definition of Community Organisation</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Community Work and Community Organisation in Social Work</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Value orientation of community Organisation </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>The Principles of Community Organisation</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Let us sum up</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Key words</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Model Answers</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">1.10. Further <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:city></p> <b><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:";font-size:13;" ><br /></span></b> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.1 Aims and Objectives<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The aim of this unit is to provide you guidelines to understand the Community organisation as a method of social work practice. In this unit you will learn about the meaning, definition, values and principles of community organisation. Through this unit you will be also aware of the concepts of community work and community organisation in social work.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">When we complete this unit you will be able to: </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Define the community organisation.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Situate the community work and community organisation in the context of social work.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Explain the values and principles of community organisation </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1027" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,12.05pt" to="6in,12.05pt" strokeweight="1.5pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251658240; left: -1px; top: 14px; width: 578px; height: 17px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1027" height="3" width="578" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.2 Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In social work profession there are three basic methods of working with people (individuals, families, groups and communities). We have already studied the two methods namely, social casework and social group work. The third basic method is community organisation. As we are aware social casework is aimed at helping individuals on one-to-one basis and social group work seeks to facilitate the development of individuals through group activities. The aim of community organisation is ‘developing a capacity’ in the community ‘by making it more organised’ to handle its own needs or problems. Community organisation is well-established method in social work. It has value orientation and the practice is guided by a set of general principles. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1026" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251657216;" from="9pt,3.6pt" to="441pt,3.6pt" strokeweight="1.5pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251657216; left: 0px; margin-left: 11px; margin-top: 3px; width: 578px; height: 3px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1026" height="3" width="578" /></span><!--[endif]--></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.3 Meaning and Definition Community Organisation:<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Meaning: <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Before we get to know more about community organisation as the method of social work, let us first understand the meaning of the term we use. The term community organisation has several meanings. It is being often used synonymous to community work, community development and community mobilization. In general, community organisation means helping the community to solve its problems. In the context of social work profession in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the term is used to denote a method of social work to intervene in the life of a community. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In sociology we learn that society and social institutions are more than just a collection of individuals. They include how those individuals are linked to each other. They are sets of systems such as economy, political organisation, value, ideas, belief systems, technology, and patterns of expected behaviours (social interaction). It means that just collections of individuals living at a common place are not necessarily organized. To call them organized they needs to have a set of common ideas and expectations. This gives them a social structure and some social processes that make the organisation something (social). It goes beyond the very individuals that compose the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Further it is important to note that just forming various groups in community having some structure or form (e.g. having a president, treasurer, secretary, etc.) does not make the community organized. It is not the multiplicity of institutions, interest groups or set of activities, which make the organized community, for it, may create more conflicts and disrupt the normal life. Thus the important determining factors of community organisation are interaction, integration and co-ordination of the existing institutions, interest groups and activities, and evolving new groups and institutions if necessary to meet the changing conditions and needs of the community.</p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Definition:<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">To study and to be able to engage in community organisation practice it is necessary to have a clear definition. There are several definitions available in literature, which are put forth at different times and context. The common element in most of them is matching resources to needs. We will discuss here two most widely accepted definitions of community organisation. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Murray G. Ross (1967) defines community organisation as a “process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them, develops the confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and external) to deal with them, and in doing so, extends and develops co-cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In this definition by “process” he meant a movement from identification of a problem or objective to solution of the problem or attainment of the objective in the community. There are other processes for dealing with community problems, but here he called the community organisation process that by which the capacity of the community to function as an integrated unit grows as it deals with one or more community problems. The task of the professional worker in community organisation is to help initiate, nourish, and develop this process. His task is also to make this process conscious, deliberative, and understood. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">“Community,” in the sense in which it is used here, refers to two major groupings of people. Firstly it may be all the people in a specific geographic area, i.e., a village, a town, a city, a neighborhood, or a district in a city. In the same manner it could refer also to all the people in a province or a state, a nation, or in the world. Secondly, it is used to include groups of people who share some common interest or function, such as welfare, agriculture, education, and religion. In this context community organisation may be involved in bringing these persons together to develop some awareness of, and feeling for their “community” and to work at common problems arising out of the interest or function they have in common. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The second definition that we discuss here is by Kramer and Specht (1975), which is in more technical terms. They defined that “Community organisation refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional change agent helps a community action system composed of individuals, groups or organisations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with special problems within the democratic system of values.” </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">According to their explanations it involves two major interrelated concerns: (a) the interaction process of working with an action system which includes identifying, recruiting and working with the members and developing organizational and interpersonal relationships among them which facilitates their efforts; and (b) the technical tasks involved in identifying problem areas, analyzing causes, formulating plans, developing strategies and mobilizing the resources necessary to effect action. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent">The analysis of both these definitions reveals that they cover the “Need-Resources Adjustment” approach, “the Social Relationships” approach and a combination of the two ideas of meeting needs and development of co-operative attitudes. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent">The distinguishing features of community organisation practice are derived largely from the three dimensions. (1) The nature of its setting and focus- the community and its problems, 2) from the nature of its goals – enhanced functional capacity of the community and its ability to influence the social welfare policy and 3) from the techniques it employs towards effecting the inter-personal and inter-group relationships of the members of the community. The statements defining community organisation method stress individually or in combination the above three factors and also refer to clientele and the total process to which the method is applied. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 0in;"><b><i><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 0in;"><b><i>Check your progress I<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 0in;"><b><i><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Define community organisation. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent">____________________________________________________________________</p> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.4 Community Work and Community organisation in Social Work<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoBodyText3">Having discussed the meaning and definition of Community organisation lets now try to situate it in the context of community work and social work profession. In social work the term “community work” is often used with different meanings. In social work literature we find that the term “community work”, “community development”, “Community Organisation” and “Community empowerment” are at times interchangeably used for the work with communities. Some authors have used these terms for the same type of work whereas others use them to refer to different type of work with communities. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">Community work has a long history as an aspect of social work. It has passed through various phases. All over the world it has been recognized as an integral part of social work practice. History shows that community work even preceded social work education. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">UK</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> community work in social work began in the 1800 with the charity organisation movement and the settlement house movement. During the initial phase in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">UK</st1:place></st1:country-region> community work was primarily seen as a method of social work, trying to help individuals to enhance their social adjustment. The main thrust was to act as a means to coordinate the work of voluntary agencies. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> the experience of working with slum community in the city of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Mumbai</st1:place></st1:city> lead to the establishment of the first institution of social work education in 1937. Community work as a method of social work in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> is largely seen as a process of developing local initiatives, particularly in the areas of education, health and agriculture development. The focus of the work is, to encourage people to express their needs, and enable them to avail the existing resources. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">There are several ways in which social work practitioners and others work in the community. In social work we find three main approaches namely, Community Development, Community Organisation and Community relations/services. While these approaches represent different situations or areas of community work there are fundamental similarities in what is being attempted. Their components are often interlinked and at times overlapping. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">What is important for us here to understand is that the community work is one of the basic social work processes. It is being used to attain the same basic objectives, as casework and groupwork. As you may be aware that all the social work methods are concerned with removal of the blocks to growth of individual, group, or community, release of their potentialities, full use of inner resources, development of capacity to manage one’s own life and their ability to function as an integrated unit. In community organisation particularly, social work is concerned with the initiation of that process which enable a community to overcome those blocks (apathy, vested interests, discrimination) which prevent the community from working together; release of potentialities and use of indigenous resources and growth of those cooperative attitude and skills which make possible achievement of increasingly difficult ends. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">Thus, Community organisation is more of a product of the maturation process than of the beginnings of the profession. The increasingly complex and interdependent nature of modern society makes community organisation almost a pre-requisite for reasonably smooth functioning. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3"><b><i>Check your progress II<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></b><!--[endif]-->What is the position of community work in social work?</p> <h3>1.5. The Value orientation of Community Organisation</h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">From the discussion above we understand that community organisation is an integral part of social work practice. In order to practice community organisation some obvious questions arise that how should it be done? Are there any value orientations and general principles that may guide us in deciding what is sound or good or socially desirable community organisation? What is desirable or accepted in community organisation practice? How to improve the chances of success in achieving the objectives of community organisation? We deal with these and such other questions in this section. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Community organisation derives from a unique frame of reference, the nature of which is based on a particular value orientation. In social work, the focus of community organisation practice is influenced by a system of personal and professional values. These values affects workers style of intervention and the skills they use in working with community members. Values are beliefs that delineate preferences about how one ought or ought not to behave. Such formulations of values obviously have a large subjective element. Values differ between groups and between individuals within the same group. Moreover, there has been no explicit, comprehensive, or generally accepted formulation of basic ethical and social values by any representative group of community organisation practitioners.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">The value orientation of community organisation as of all social work derives from acceptance of certain concepts and facts as a foundation for work with people. Among these are the essential dignity and ethical worth of the individual, the possession by each individual of potentialities and resources for managing his own life, the importance of freedom to express one’s individuality, the great capacity or growth within all social beings, the right of the individual to those basic physical necessities (food shelter and clothing) without which fulfillment of life is often blocked, the need for the individual to struggle and strive to improve his own life and environment, the right of the individual to help in time of need and crisis, the importance of a social organisation for which the individual feels responsible and which is responsive to individual feeling, the need of<span style=""> </span>a social climate which encourages individual growth and development, the right and responsibility of the individual to participate in the affairs of his community, the practicability of discussion, conference, and consultation as methods for the solution of individual and social problems, “self help” as the essential base of any programme of aid, etc. These and other similar value orientations constitute the basis of community organisation. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3"><b><i><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText3"><b><i>Check your progress III<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Discuss in brief the value orientation of community organisation practice.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.25in;">____________________________________________________________________ </p> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.6 Principles of Community Organisation<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Principles of community organisation, in the sense in which the term is used here are generalized guiding rules for the sound practice. Principles are expressions of value judgments. The principles of community organisation, which are being discussed here, are within the frame of and in harmony with the spirit and purpose of social work in a democratic society. We are concerned with the dignity and worth, the freedom, the security, the participation, and the wholesome and abundant life o every individual. This implies following the principles of democracy, involvement of the marginalized, transparency, honesty, sustainability, self-reliance, partnerships, cooperation, etc. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In the literature of community organisation we find various sets of principles. Dunham (1958) has presented a statement of 28 suggested principles of community organisation. He grouped those under seven headings.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(i)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Democracy and social welfare, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(ii)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Community roots for community programs, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(iii)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional service, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(iv)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Co operation, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(v)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Social Welfare Programs, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(vi)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of social welfare services, and </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">(vii)<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Prevention. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Ross (1967) outlined specific principles – the elementary or fundamental ideas regarding initiation and continuation of community organisation processes. These principles have been discussed in terms of the nature of the organisation or association and the role of the professional worker. The twelve principles identified by Ross are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Discontent with existing conditions in the community must initiate and/or nourish development of the association.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Discontent must be focused and channeled into organisation, planning, and action in respect to specific problems. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Discontent which initiates or sustains community organisation must be widely shared in the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association must involve leaders (both formal and informal) identified with, and accepted by major sub-groups in the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association must have goals and methods and procedures of high acceptability.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The programme of the association should include some activities with an emotional content. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">7.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association should seek to utilize the manifest and latent goodwill which exists in the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">8.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association must develop active and effective lines of communication both within the association and between the association and the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">9.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association should seek to support and strengthen groups which it brings together in cooperative work. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">10.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association should develop a pace of work relative to existing conditions in the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">11.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association should seek to develop effective leaders. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">12.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->The association must develop strength, stability and prestige in the community. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Keeping in mind the actual practice situations in India Siddiqui (1997) have worked out a set of 8 principles. </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of Specific Objectives</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of Planning</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of Peoples Participation</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of inter-group approach</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of democratic functioning</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of flexible organisation</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of Optimum Utilisation of Indigenous Resources</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The Principle of Cultural orientation</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We are trying to interpret some of the principles from the available sets of principles for guiding our practice of community organisation in Indian context. </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Community organisation is means and not an end:</b> As discussed earlier the community organisation is a process by which the capacity of the community to function as an integrated unit is being enhanced. In this sense it is a method or a means to enable people to live a happy and fully developed life. It refers to a method of intervention whereby a community consisting of individuals, groups or organisations are helped to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with their needs and problems. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Community Organisation is to promote community solidarity and the practice of democracy: </b>It should seek to overcome disruptive influences, which threaten the well being of the community and the vitality of democratic institutions. In community organisation discrimination and segregation or exclusion should be avoided and integration and mutual acceptance should be promoted. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="3" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>The clear identification of the Community:</b> Since the community is the client of the community organisation worker, it must be clearly identified. It is likely that there are several communities with which he/she deals at the same time. Further it is important that once the community is identified the entire community must be the concern of the practitioner. No programme can be isolated from the social welfare needs and resources of the community as a whole. The welfare of the whole community is always more important than the interest or the well being of any one agency/group in the community.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="4" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Fact-finding and needs assessment:<span style=""> </span></b>Community organisation programmes should have its roots in the community. Proper fact-finding and assessment of the community needs is the pre requisite for starting any programme in the community. It is generally desirable for local community services to be indigenous, grass-roots developments rather than to be imposed form without. Whenever possible, then, a community organisation should have its origin in a need felt by the community or by some substantial number of persons in the community and there should be vital community participation, and usually essential community control, in its development.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">While facilitating the process of community organisation the programmes should be initiated, developed, modified, and terminated on the basis of the needs of the community and on the basis of the availability of other comparable services. When the particular need for a service is met, the programme should be modified or terminated. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="5" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b>Identification, Mobilization and Utilization of the available resources:</b><span style=""> </span>The fullest possible use should be made of existing social welfare resources, before creating new resources or services. In the absence of resources/services the worker has to mobilize the resources from various sources such as community, government, non-government agencies, etc. While utilizing the indigenous resources it must be recognised that these resources may sometimes need extensive overhauling before they will meet certain needs. Apart from mobilizing physical resources, indigenous human resources should be put to optimum use. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Participatory Planning: </b><span style=""> </span>The community organisation worker must accept the need for participatory planning throughout the process of community organisation. It is important that the practitioner prepares a blue print in the beginning of what he/she intends to do with the community. This is done with the community taking into consideration the needs of the community, available resources, agency objectives, etc. Planning in community organisation is a continuous process as it follows the cycle of implementation and evaluation.<span style=""> </span>The planning should be on the basis of ascertained facts, rather than an expression of guesswork, “hunches,” or mere trial and error. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In order to foster the greater participation it is necessary to analyse the impeding factors and take timely steps to remove them. Instead of forcing people to participate in all the issues they should be encouraged to participate at a level and issues in accordance with their capacities. It must be noted that the people will participate if they are convinced of the benefits of the programme. </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="7" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Active and vital participation: </b><span style=""> </span>The concept of self-help is a core of community organisation. The community members’ participation throughout the process of community organisation should be encouraged from the standpoint both of democratic principle and of feasibility- that is, the direct involvement in the progrmme of those who have the primary stake in it’s results. “Self-help” by citizen or clientele groups should be encouraged and fostered.<span style=""> </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Communities’ right of self determination should be respected:<span style=""> </span></b>The Role of the Community organisation worker is to provide professional skill, assistance, and creative leadership in enabling peoples’ groups and organizations to achieve social welfare objectives. The community members should make basic decisions regarding programme and policy. While the community organisation worker plays a variety of roles in different situations, he is basically concerned with enabling peoples’ expression and leadership to achieve community organisation goals, and not with control, domination, or manipulation. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Voluntary cooperation:</b> Community organisation must be based upon mutual understanding, voluntary acceptance, and mutual agreement. Community organisation, if it is to be in harmony with democratic principles, cannot be regimentation; it should not be imposed from outside, but must be derived from the inner freedom and will to unite of those who practice it. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>The spirit of cooperation rather than competition, and the practice of coordination of effort</b>: Community organisation practice should be based on the spirit of cooperation rather than competition. The community organisation practice has proved that the most effective advances are made through cooperative effort. It is by the coordinated and sustained programs attacking major problems rather than through sporadic efforts by various groups. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The emphasis on collaborative and cooperative attitudes and practices does not imply elimination of differences, of tension, or of conflict. In fact we have to recognize that these later forces gives life and vitality to a movement. It must be understood that such conflict can be disruptive and destructive, or it can be positive and creative. What is important for the community organisation worker is that he/she identifies such forces and appropriately modifies them to the end beneficial to community as whole. </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="11" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Recognition and involvement of indigenous leadership:</b> Community organisation as it has been described requires the participation of the people of a community. However everyone in the community cannot be involved in face-to-face contact with all others in the community; therefore it is important to identify and recognize the leaders (both the formal and informal) accepted by various groups and subgroups in the community. Inclusion of the respected and accepted leaders with whom the major subgroups identify provides a major step in integrating the community and makes possible initiation of a process of communication which, if it becomes effective, will nourish and sustain the process of community organisation.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Limited use of authority or compulsion: </b>Invoking the application of authority or compulsion may sometimes be necessary in community organisation; but it should be used as little as possible, for as short a time as possible, and only as a last resort. When compulsion must be applied, it should be followed as soon as possible by resumption of the cooperative process. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>The dynamic and flexible nature of Programmes and Services: </b>This principle is basic to sound community organisation. Social welfare agencies and programmes must be responsive to the changing conditions, problems, and needs of community life. Community is a dynamic phenomenon, which constantly changes and thus the needs and problems also keeps changing. Therefore it is necessary that the programmes and services are flexible enough. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Continual Participatory evaluation: </b>As programmes are developed to meet community needs, some time must be set aside for evaluation of the process. Regular feedback from the community is important. Criteria must be set up for evaluation of the programmes, to see how effective the action has been and what has been accomplished. <b><o:p></o:p></b></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><i>Check your progress IV<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Community organisation practice should be based on the spirit of cooperation rather than competition, discuss.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Discuss the principles of planning and evaluation in community organisation. </li></ol> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.7 Let us sum up<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The aim of this unit was to provide you guidelines to understand the basic concept of Community organisation as a method of social work practice. We have discussed in detail the meaning of community organisation and also provided the definitions with explanations. Now you will be able to explain the meaning and definition of community organisation. Being aware that community work and community organisation are integral part of social work, you will be able to situate them in the context of social work. We have discussed the value orientation and some of the important principles guiding the community organisation practice. You are now in a position to recognize the importance of the values and principles and will be able to follow them while practicing community organisation in the field. </p> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.8 Key Words<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Capacity: </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >The ability, power or strength of an individual, community or an organization</span><b><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:";font-size:10;color:black;" >.</span></b></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Community Integration:</b> A process in which the exercise of co operative and collaborative attitude and practices leads to greater identification with community, interest and participation in the affairs for community and sharing of common values and means for expressing these values </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Community Participation</span></b>: <span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Community participation means to ensure that decisions affecting the community are taken by all <i>(not only a few) </i>community members <i>(not by an outside agency).</i></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Co-operation:</b> to help one another in allied tasks or to work together towards a common end, purpose or effect. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Formulating Plans</span></b>: Planning the various steps and methods necessary to achieve the goal. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Need</span></b>-<b>Resources Adjustment</b>: Matching the resources with the identified needs in the community. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Resource:</b> <span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >A <i>“resource” </i>is anything of value (Physical material, money, people, etc.) that can be used as an <i>“input” </i>for a project.<b> </b></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Social Institution:</b> Association, custom, or relationship consciously approved by a society, and organized and maintained through prescribed rules and agencies. <span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >It means a recognised pattern of social interaction. An institution comes with a set of attitudes, behaviour patterns, expectations and meanings.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b>Social Interaction:</b> <span style="line-height: 150%;color:black;" >Social interaction is the behaviour and beliefs between people that is dependent upon the behaviour and beliefs of each other and of other people</span><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:";font-size:10;color:black;" >.</span></li></ul> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.9 Model Answers <o:p></o:p></span></h3> <h2 style="line-height: 150%;">Check your Progress I</h2> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Define community organisation. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent">There are several definitions available in literature, which are put forth at different times and context. The common element in most of them is matching resources to needs. We will discuss here two most widely accepted definitions of community organisation. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Murray G. Ross defines community organisation as a “process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them, develops the confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and external) to deal with them, and in doing so, extends and develops co-cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Another definition that we discuss here is by Kramer and Specht (1975), which is in more technical terms. They defined that “Community organisation refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional change agent helps a community action system composed of individuals, groups or organisations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with special problems within the democratic system of values.” </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><i>Check your Progress II</i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="2" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What is the position of community work in social work?</li></ol> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent">In social work the term “community work” is often used with different meanings. In social work literature we find that the term “community work”, “community development”, “Community Organisation” and “Community empowerment” are at times found interchangeably used for the work with communities. Some authors have used these terms for the same type of work whereas others use them to refer to different type of work with communities. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.25in;">Community work has a long history as an aspect of social work. It has passed through various phases. All over the world it has been recognized as an integral part of social work practice. During the initial phase in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">UK</st1:place></st1:country-region> community work was primarily seen as a method of social work, trying to help individuals to enhance their social adjustment. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.25in;">Community work as a method of social work in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> is largely seen as a process of developing local initiatives, particularly in the areas of education, health and agriculture development. The focus of the work is, to encourage people to express their needs, and enable them to avail the existing resources. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><i><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><i>Check your Progress III<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText3" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Discuss in brief the value orientation of community organisation practice.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In social work, the focus of community organisation practice is influenced by a system of personal and professional values. These values affects workers style of intervention and the skills they use in working with community members. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText3">The value orientation of community organisation as of all social work derives from acceptance of certain concepts and facts as a foundation for work with people. Among these are the essential dignity and ethical worth of the individual, the possession by each individual of potentialities and resources for managing his own life, the importance of freedom to express one’s individuality, the great capacity or growth within all social beings, the right of the individual to those basic physical necessities (food shelter and clothing) without which fulfillment of life is often blocked, the need for the individual to struggle and strive to improve his own life and environment, the right of the individual to help in time of need and crisis, the importance of a social organisation for which the individual feels responsible and which is responsive to individual feeling, the need of<span style=""> </span>a social climate which encourages individual growth and development, the right and responsibility of the individual to participate in the affairs of his community, the practicability of discussion, conference, and consultation as methods for the solution of individual and social problems, “self help” as the essential base of any programme of aid, etc. These and other similar value orientations constitute the basis of community organisation. </p> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1.10 Further <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:city><o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span>i.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Ross, M.G., “Community7 Organisation”, Harper and Row, <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>, 1967.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span>ii.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Siddiqui H.Y. “Working with Communities”, Hira Publications, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Delhi</st1:place></st1:city>, 1997.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span>iii.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Gangrade, K.D., “Community Organisation in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Popular Prakashan, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Bombay</st1:place></st1:city>, 1971.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span>iv.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span><!--[endif]-->Harper E.B. and Dunham Arthur, “Community Organisation in Action” <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>, Association Press, 1959.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;font-size:10;" ><span style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span>v.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Journal of community Practice: Organising, Planning, Development and Change, The Haworth Social Work Practice Press.<span style="line-height: 150%;font-size:10;" > <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;font-size:10;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center">*********************************</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Prepared by :</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Dr. Suresh Pathare</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Lecturer, Department of Social Work, </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Delhi</st1:placename></st1:place>, Delhi-110 007.</p><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Block 1</b>. Community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Unit<span style=""> </span>3</b> Community Organization as a method of social work</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Contents</span></h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>3.0. Aims and Objectives</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.1. Introduction</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.2. Community organization as a macro method</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.3. Community Organization as a problem solving method</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.4. Relevance of Community Organization for community Development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.5. Distinction between community Organization and community </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.6. Working with Individuals, families, and Groups within the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.7. Concept of power</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.8. Dimensions of Power</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.9. Relevance of power in Community Organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.10. Barriers of Empowerment</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.11. Let us sum up</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.12. Key Words</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.13. Model Answers</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.14. Further <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.0. Aims and objectives<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Aim of this unit is to learn social work intervention with communities and to understand community organization as a method of social work. After studying this unit you will be able to</p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand community organization as a method of social work </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand the relevance of community organization for community development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Distinguish between Community Organization and Community Development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">d.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand the concept of power in the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">e.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand the relevance of power in community organization</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">f.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand the concept of empowerment</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">g.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Understand the barriers of empowerment</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.1 Introduction<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span></b>Community Organization is one of the primary methods of social work. It deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. As a method of social work community organization can solve the problems of many people in the community through their collective involvement. Community organization and community development are inter-related as two sides of the same coin. The community organization includes other methods of social work, that is, group work, and casework. The power structure plays a role in the community organization. The social workers need to know the community power structure to practice community organization method. Community organization method is used for empowering people for their development. The details are provided for social work student to understand and practice community organization effectively.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.2. Community Organization as Macro Method of practice in social work.<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Community organization is considered as a Macro method of practice in social work. [Arthur E. Fink] It is used for solving community problems. The term Macro is used because of its ability to involve a large number of people in solving the social problems. Community organization is a macro method because; community organization can be successfully implemented at local level of community, or at state level of community, or at regional level of the community or at very large international level of community. For example,<span style=""> </span>community organization is possible for pollution control at local, state, regional national and inter national levels. It is a macro method because; casework deals with only one person, group work deals with limited number of participants. But community organization deals with number of people and so it is called as macro method. For example, Poverty cannot be solved by using individual approach like casework as there are many people affected by poverty. Individual approach is not practical due to the magnitude of the problem. We have to use a method, which can help a large number of people. While comparing other methods of social work community organization as macro method is useful for solving social problems like poverty. </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.3. Community Organization as a Problem solving method.<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>In community Organization method the community is the client. Community organization solves the Community Problems and fulfills the needs of the community. Many of the community problems like social injustice, poverty, inadequate housing, poor nutrition, lack of health, lack of medical services, unemployment, pollution, exploitation, bonded labour system, illicit arrack, dowry, female infanticide, women and children trafficking, drug trafficking etc. can be solved by using community organization method. In problem solving generally we use three basic aspects.<span style=""> </span>They are study, diagnosis, and treatment. The problem has to be studied. For this we have to collect information regarding the problem. From the information collected we have to find out the causes. This is called as diagnosis. Based on the findings, or diagnosis a solution is evolved that is called as treatment. We consider this model as medical model because doctors study the patient find out the causes for illness and based on findings, treatment or medicine is provided. Similar model is used in community organization method. Problems are solved with involvement of people. The resources are mobilized to solve the problems. This method is applicable for Indian situations because in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> a large number of people are affected by poverty or other poverty related problems. They need solutions. For this community organization as a problem solving method can solve community problems. For example people in the dry area suffer due to lack of water for their cultivation. With the help of the community organizer and people’s participation watersheds can be made and ground water level is increased. Water stored during rainy season can help the people to continue cultivation. Here the whole village problem is related with water for irrigation and drinking purpose, which is solved by using community organization method.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Community Organization method is used for the following:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>To meet the needs and bring about and maintain adjustment between needs and resources in a community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Helping people effectively with their problems and objectives by helping them to develop, strengthen, and maintain qualities of participation, self-direction and cooperation.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Bringing about changes in community and group relationships and in the distribution of decision-making power.</p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">d.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>The resources of the community are identified and tapped for solving the </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">community problems.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span>Check your progress. I<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">a. What do you understand by Community Organization as a Macro method of practice?<b><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.4. The Relevance of Community Organization for community Development.</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Community Organization and community Development are interrelated. To achieve the goals of community development the Community Organization method is used.<span style=""> </span>According to United Nations, community development deals with total development of a developing country that is economic, physical, and social aspects. For achieving total development community organization is used. In community development the following aspects are considered as important. The same aspects are also considered as important by community organization. They are,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Democratic procedures</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Voluntary Cooperation</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Self help</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">d.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Development of leadership</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">e.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Educational aspects.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">All the above aspects are related with community organization. [a]Democratic procedures deal with allowing all the community members to participate in decision-making. It is possible to achieve this by community organization. The selected or elected members or representatives are helped to take decisions. Democratic procedures help people to take part in achieving community development goals. Community organization method permits the democratic procedures for people’s participation</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">[b] Voluntary cooperation means the people are suppose to volunteer for their participation. For this they are convinced. They should feel that they should involve in the process of development without hesitation. This is supported by community organization method. People’s emotional involvement is necessary according to community organization method. If discontentment is created properly then people will volunteer for participation. Community organization emphasizes the discontentment and people’s participation. [c] Self-help is the basis for community development. Self-help deals with the capacity of mobilizing internal resources. Self-help is the basis for self-sufficiency and sustainable development. In community organization self-help is emphasized. Community organization is relevant to community development because both emphasizes the self-help concepts. [f] Development of leadership is an important aspect in community development. Leadership deals with influencing people to achieve the goals. Community organization also emphasizes leadership.<span style=""> </span>With the help of leaders the people are motivated to participate in action. Community organization is a relevant method to develop and use leadership. So it is applicable for community development.[g] Educational aspects in community development means helping people to know, learn, many of the aspects like, democracy, cooperation, unity, skill development, effective functioning etc.<span style=""> </span>In community organization the above mentioned aspects are considered as important. The process of community organization emphasizes education of the community. Thus both are emphasizing educational aspects of the community. Thus community organization and community development are interrelated and relevant. There are no opposing aspects in between community organization and community development and both emphasize the same aspects. Thus they are relevant. So in all community development programmes community organization method is used as implementing method.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.5. Distinction between Community Organization and Community Development<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>There are many similarities between community organization and community development. But for theoretical purpose it is possible to differentiate community organization and community development.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization is a method of social work but community development is a programme for a planned change.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization emphasizes the processes, but community development emphasizes the end or goals</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">c.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organizers are mostly social workers and social change agents, But community development personnel can be from other professions like economics, Agricultural experts, veterinary experts, and other technical experts.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">d.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization is not time bound. It is achieved step by step according to the pace of the people, But community development is time bound and time is specified for achieving the development.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">e.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>In community organization people’s participation is important. But in community development people’s development is important.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">f.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>In community organization government and external agencies assistances are not important and needed. But in community development external especially assistance from the government is considered as important.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">g.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization is a method of social work and this method is used in many fields, but unlike community organization community development is considered as process, method, programme, and movement for planned change. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">h.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization is used in all the fields but community development is used in mostly economic development and for the development of living standards of the people.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">i.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>In community organization planning is initiated by the people participation. But in community development planning is carried out by an external agency mostly by the government.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">j.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>In community organization people are organized to solve their problem. But in community development goals have to be achieved and for that people are organized.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;">k.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>Community organization is universal to all communities. But community development programmes differ from people to people and according to the nature of the country.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Even though there are differences, both are interrelated. The relationship is so close, so that community organization process and principles are accepted fully. Both are like two sides of same coin. The ideal community development is where community organization method is used without any mistake. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.6. Working with Individuals, families, and Groups with in the community<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Individuals join together and constitute groups and families. Families and groups join together and form communities. While working with communities we have to work with individuals, families, and groups. In actual practice of social work distinction between different practice of social work methods do not have clear boundaries. All are carried out based on the situation. In community organization the organizer has to work with individuals. Individual contact strategy is used to create awareness. Individually people are motivated to accept community goals through education and awareness. Working with individuals takes much time but it is very effective and successful. Working with families and groups cannot be avoided in community organization. Working with many groups is considered as community organization.<span style=""> </span>In the community there are many groups. For achieving the common goals we have to work with different groups. There are many groups in the community involved in different activities. They are dependent on each other for their functioning. The community organizer works with the groups in order to articulate with one other to achieve the goals of the community. Thus the community organizer takes deliberate efforts to influence the unity among individuals, families, and groups. When they unite together they collaborate to achieve the common goals. Groups are considered superior than Individuals in problem solving and action. The groups are better than the average individual but they are not better than the best individual. They may not perform well when compared to one expert. While working with groups there is a possibility of getting variety of opinions and information for community organization. The group members can eliminate the unwanted opinions by group decisions.<span style=""> </span>The individuals can work fast in a group but to involve in work takes some time.<span style=""> </span>Consensus is considered as an ideal way to select among alternatives while working with groups because; the group members commit themselves for the cause or decision. When there are controversial issues among the group members, it is possible to reach a decision by modifying the original decision. Then it is acceptable to all the group members.<span style=""> </span>Thus a community organizer can work with individuals and groups to achieve the community goals. The organizer should know casework and group work skills apart from community organization skills to work with individuals and groups in the community.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span>Check your progress II<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <div style="border-style: none none solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color -moz-use-text-color windowtext; border-width: medium medium 1.5pt; padding: 0in 0in 1pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">What do you mean by working with individuals and groups to achieve the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>goals?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.7. Concept of power<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>Power means an ability to influence, in community organization. That is influencing community members to act up on as directed by the leaders to achieve the community goals. The community power aspects can be studied. This is called as power structure of the community. The power structure of the community varies according to the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.8. The Dimensions of Power<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the beliefs and behavior of others according to wish or plan. In other words, power is the ability to make things happen. Floyd hunter explained the nature of power and power structure. Power appears in numerous forms and in a variety of combinations. Power flows from many sources. The money, votes, laws, information, expertise, prestige, group support, contacts, charisma, communication channels, media, social role, access to rewards, position, titles, ideas, verbal skill, ability to gratify important needs, monopoly of essential resources, alliances, energy, conviction, courage, interpersonal skills, moral convictions, etc. are some of the sources of power. The accumulation of power in a specific area is called as a power center. Power is also distributed. It is not confined within the power center. It is present at every level of the society. The powerless people do have power. They have to discover their power. Power may be ascribed by formal delegation or by title. Power may be achieved by many ways. For example, through competence, ability, or by personality etc. power can be achieved. Generally groups of people are at the top of the community. They are called as power centers at the top of the power pyramid. They influence the community through formal and informal connections. They influence through sub-ordinate leaders who do not participate in community decision-making process. The rich people are mostly powerful.<span style=""> </span>In some communities multiplicity of power structure is noticed.<span style=""> </span>Power structure is also flexible in nature. The community Organizer has to study the following ‘ How do some people influence the action of others? Who wields the power?<span style=""> </span>How?<span style=""> </span>What are the issues?<span style=""> </span>What are the results?<span style=""> </span>These aspects are to be analyzed by the organizer for effective practice of community organization. This is called as community power structure analysis. It is called as power because some people are capable of action in spite of the resistance of others who are participating in the action.<span style=""> </span>Some people are<span style=""> </span>powerful because they knew each other personally and they interact frequently making them involve in joint efforts in community affairs. People with power, make major community decision where as others are active in implementing such decisions. An organizer who is able to study the power structure well can practice community organization effectively. For example, the village traditional leader is a powerful person. The leader can influence other people to act. Many times this leader is motivated to involve in achieving the goals of the community. The leader is capable of influencing people effectively. When there is opposition from a few men, it can be tackled by the leader because the leader has power. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In the community power is distributed. Each power center tries to expand its influence over the distribution of resources and rewards.<span style=""> </span>The various power centers enter into an alliance.<span style=""> </span>They share power, enter into a contract and discharge obligations. Power does not come to the passive, timid, defeated, persons. Energetic, courageous, persons wield it. The people with power tend to join together based on issues.<span style=""> </span>The basis for alliance are ideological, personality similarities, needs, or to achieve the goals.<span style=""> </span>Power possessed is always used. It can be used for achieving the goals. The power can be intellectual, political, social, and psychological power. To retain power there is a need for self-awareness and self control. The decision-making is the source and out come of the power. Some times there is a possibility of many number of power centers. Each power center may be autonomous. The organizer needs knowledge, and ability to mobilize the power in the community for achieving the goals of the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">There are techniques for mobilization of power.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Appealing to the persons with power, who are related with achieving the goal </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Relating the power centers directly to the goal </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Developing interdependence among power centers for fulfilling the goals. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Formation of new groups by including members of power centers to achieve the goals. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Encouraging members of power centers to join with other members of power centers to achieve the goal </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">By using group work methods, new larger power centers can be strengthened to achieve the goals. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent3" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Saul Alinsky and Richard Cloward used the changing of power centers. [1960]. The power center change is achieved by institutional changes. Saul Alinsky gave importance for grass-root approach. In grass-root approach lower level people should get deciding power. Power and authority are connected. Authority is the legitimatization of power. These details are used in community organization to achieve people’s participation and successful achievement of the goal.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.9. The Relevance of power in Community Organization</b>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Development is influenced by power structures of the community. People who are influential can mobilize a major segment of the community. For example; in fund raising drive some people can move behind other people and institutions. There are two models of community power structure. The stratification model and the pluralist mode are the two models of power structures. Stratification model suggests that social class principally determines the distribution of community power. According to this model the power structure in community is composed of stable upper class elite whose interest and out look on community affairs are relatively homogeneous. According to pluralist model, it rejects the idea that a small homogeneous group dominates community decision-making. But there are numerous small special interest groups that cut across class lines, which are represented in the community decision-making. These are interest groups with overlapping memberships, widely differing power bases, have influences on decisions. Community decisions are the result of the interactions of these different interest groups. This theoretical orientation can help the community organizer in his action. The organizer has to identify the members of the power structure for community organization. Floyd Hunter an executive director of a community welfare council wrote classic volumes on community power structure. His method of locating community elites is known as the reputation approach.<span style=""> </span>The basic procedure is to ask a group of informants who are knowledgeable about the community to list the people they believe to be most influential in the community affairs.<span style=""> </span>There may be variations on this procedure with regard to how informants are selected, and how questions are put in.<span style=""> </span>By tallying those people most frequently named as influential leaders we can identify the core of the community power structure. Position approach is another method of locating the members of the power structure based on the assumption of stratification model. This approach assumes that people holding the highest office in the community are at the top of the power structure. By scanning the executive lists of the important social political and economic organizations in the community, one can quickly compile a list of members of the power structure. This approach requires fewer efforts than the reputation approach. Community power is directly related with Community Organization. Participation of people is related with power. In Community Organization community power holders are involved to induce people’s participation in order to achieve the organizations objectives. Some times if the existing power centers are not for Community Organizational objectives, then a new center of power is created to get people’s commitment and mass participation. The organizer needs to study power structure and Community Organization process is carried out successfully through leaders. For example, people are organized to implement family planning. For this the leader is motivated for people’s participation. In some villages the leader opposes family planning. In this situation the community organizer has to identify a new powerful leader to implement family planning. Other wise it is not possible to implement family planning in the village.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.10. Barriers of empowerment<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Generally poor people have the feeling of powerlessness. These people can be helped to feel powerful to decide their own affairs using community organization. When they learn to solve their problems they feel powerful. We can develop confidence and capacity building so that they feel that they can solve their problems by themselves. In community organization, the people carry out decision-making. This provides them with a sense of empowerment. Empowerment deals with providing disadvantaged groups with a powerful instrument for articulating their demands and preferences by awareness, decision-making capacity and to achieve their goal with freedom.<span style=""> </span>Community Organization results in empowerment of the people. But there are some hindrances like fatalism, illiteracy, superstitions, and caste divisions etc. Some times the vested interested groups may be a hindrance or barriers for empowerment.<span style=""> </span>The Community dependence, long time effect of poverty, and wrong beliefs etc., act as barriers to empowerment. When people are organized, they get the power. There are leaders in the community, they are united, they can work together, and they can co ordinate with each other. This makes them feel powerful. Thus community organization results in empowerment of people. The empowerment helps the community to stand against exploitation, ability to solve<span style=""> </span>problems, and to achieve the desired goals. Many of the economic problems can be easily solved by community organization and empowerment of community. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span>Check your progress III<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>What do you understand by Community Power Structure?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.11. Let us sum up.<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>In this unit we have discussed about community organization as a macro method of social work, the relevance of community organization for community development. The differences between community organization and community development are listed. The importance of working with individuals’ families and groups has been discussed. Toward the end of the unit, the power structure, and its relevance to community organization are discussed. All these information will be useful for successful community organization.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.12. Keywords<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Achieved power</b> means the power that is gained by the efforts of an individual.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Ascribed power </b>means the power, which is delegated, to an individual by others.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Community development</b> means a total development of a developing community in economic, physical and social aspects by pooling their resources.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Empowermen</b>t: Creating awareness and providing ability to decide and act upon for their development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Grass root approach </b>means lower level people getting the deciding power or empowerment of lower level people.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Macro method</b>: Large scale utilization of method that is used for solving community problems</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Pluralist model </b>of power means many small interest groups holding power</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Power </b>is an ability to influence the beliefs and behavior of others to achieve the wish or plan.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Power center</b> means the specific person who accumulates the power.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Power structure</b>: Structure of the influencing people in the community</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Stratification model </b>of power means a few people of upper class elite holding power</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Voluntary cooperation</b> means people who decide to work by their own decision and work with the community organizer and other members of the community.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.13.Model answers.<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b>Check your progress I<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">a. What do you understand by Community Organization as a Macro method of practice?</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Community organization is considered as a macro method of practice because it is used for solving community problems. A large number of people are involved and problems of large number of people are solved, so it is called as a macro method of practice.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b>Check your progress II<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>What do you mean by working individuals and groups to achieve the community goals?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Community organizer takes deliberate efforts to influence the individuals and groups to unite together for achieving common goals. The organizer should know how to work in a group work situation. This will help to unite different groups to work together. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Check your progress III<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>What do you understand by Community Power Structure?</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><br />Power means the ability to influence others to carry out an action. Community power structure deals with, who influences? How?<span style=""> </span>What for? What is the result of the influence?<span style=""> </span>What are the other details related to usage of power? Etc.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>3.14.Further <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City></b>:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">1.<b>Chekki A. Dan</b>, 1979. Community Development, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Delhi</st1:place></st1:City>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">2.<b>Cox.M.Fred and Erlich</b> L. John, 1987, Strategies of Community organization, F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Illinois</st1:place></st1:State>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3.<b>Fink E. Arthur</b>, 1978, The Fields of Social work,<span style=""> </span>Holt Rinehart and <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Winston</st1:City>, <st1:state st="on">New York</st1:State></st1:place></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">4.<st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b>Murray</b></st1:place></st1:City><b> G. Ross</b>.1955 Community Organization. Harper and row Publishers. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:State>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">5.<b>Ralph M. Kramer</b> 1975<span style=""> </span><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City> in Community Organization practice Prentice Hall Inc. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Jersey</st1:place></st1:State></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">6.<b>Rex a. Skidmore</b>, 1976<span style=""> </span>Introduction to Social work, Prentice Hall Inc. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Jersey</st1:place></st1:State></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">UNIT – 4 CURRENT ISSUES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1026" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="441pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251629568; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 590px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1026" height="2" width="590" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <h1><span style="">Contents<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">4.0 Aims and Objectives </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">4.1 Introduction </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style="">4.2 Gender Sensitive Community Organization Practice; Gender Caste and Class as axis of inequality, Factionalism and protecting the rights of marginalized groups;<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.3 Impact of Macro Policies</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.4 Unionization strategies </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.5 Dealing with authorities </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.6 Protests and demonstrations </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.7 Let us Sum up</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.8 Key Words</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.9 Suggested <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">4.10 Model Answers</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1028" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="441pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251632640; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 590px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1028" height="2" width="590" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal">4.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1027" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="441pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251631616; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 590px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1027" height="2" width="590" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">The social life of the people is affected by the kind of community in which they live. With the advancement of science our life has become complex. Self-sufficiency of village communities has broken down. Social institutions like family, joint family, caste system, village panchayat, private property, education etc. have undergone changes. And are not able to meet the changing demands of the individual and community. This unit aims at giving you a broad understanding of current issues in community organization. After going through this unit you would be able to: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->explain the gender and gender injustice,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->describe the concept of caste and class and their functions, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->pinpoint the types of inequalities perpetuating in the community,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->analyse the implications of Macro policies on people and </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->trace out ways and means to deal with factionalism and authorities for protecting the rights of marginalized group.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1030" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="468pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251634688; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 626px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1030" height="2" width="626" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal">4.1 INTRODUCTION</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1029" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="468pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251633664; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 626px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1029" height="2" width="626" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The communities of toady are facing lots of challenges. The ancient social relations, emotional bonds and sentimental ties are no more significant and visible. The community consciousness is rapidly lowering down. Dirty politics has housed into the peaceful life of the community people and they are divided into different political groups and sub-groups. The joint family system is fast disintegrating and strains on human mind are increasing. Communal disharmony, gender inequality, factionalism, protection of rights of marginalized groups, feelings of deprivations among different classes like cultivators, industrial workers, daily wage earners, alteration of property relations in favour of the less privileged and impact of macro policies at micro levels are the some current issues which require immediate intervention while working with communities, institutions and organizations. This unit gives you a broad understanding of issues, which are affecting the dynamics of the healthy life styles and functioning of the communities and organizations. Let us now understand the meaning of gender, difference between gender and sex, gender system and its elements and impact of gender system on women inequalities.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1032" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="486pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251636736; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 650px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1032" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.1<span style=""> </span>GENDER SENSITIVE COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1031" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="486pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251635712; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 650px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1031" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">The <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Oxford</st1:place></st1:City> dictionary meaning of gender is sexual classification i.e. male and female. But gender is not biological attribute. It is created by the society as a set of system. There is a need of a ‘system of equal existence’ of ‘Men’ and ‘Women’. Unfortunately, our present system is involved in developing its own set of rules, which is basically responsible for discrimination and injustice of women and girl child in our society.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1044" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251649024; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1044" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENDER AND SEX <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1043" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251648000; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 638px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1043" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b><span style="">Gender<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b><span style="">Sex<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Socially defined<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Biologically defined<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Socio-cultural difference<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Natural difference<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Made by the society<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Naturally made.<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Variable <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Constant<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Gender gives different values to Men and Women. The biological sex differences are accepted as correct indicator for differential male-female access and their participation in the society. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1034" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="468pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251638784; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 626px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1034" height="2" width="626" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.3 GENDER SYSTEM<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1033" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="468pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251637760; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 626px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1033" height="2" width="626" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Our society is organized around some given parameters and aims, the functionality of which is ensured by a set of systems and institutions. For instance, marriage and family life are ingrained aspects of the Indian Society.<span style=""> </span>Girls and boys get married and start their own families living within the prescribed norms that determine choice of marriage partner, their roles, code of conduct (fidelity, chastity, girl’s subservience to her husband and in-laws), life-style and practices (such as purda, male inheritance, dowry etc.). One of the most pervasive and widespread codes of organization that affects all aspects of social functioning is the gender system. It is patriarchy that provides the life force to the unfavourable conditions that woman face. Let us try and list out some of the more common features of gender system. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Male-Female differentiation: <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>The practices of male-female differentiation form the core of a gender-based system. Biological sex differences, which are real, are extended to be the criteria for social placement. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Allocation of Roles:<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>In any organization or society roles are attributed for specific function. In a patriarchy, roles are allocated not only in accordance with the biological functions (procreation), but are misappropriated according to values prescribed to male and females. Within patriarchy ‘dominating and controlling social functions are prescribed for males whereas ‘supportive functions are the purview of the females. Thus, by birth, the males are ‘inheritors of resources’, performing the functions of earners and by birth the females are ‘family caretakers’ performing the functions of ‘child nurturing and running the householder’.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Gender-based hierarchical placement: <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span></b>Alongwith role allocation certain norms and values, as well as practices and beliefs, further promote the ‘male-female superior-inferior or hierarchy’, whereby males have access to land holdings inheritance, skills, productive employment and the associated high status, women, on the other hand are denied even life (female infanticide / foeticide), receive poor nutrition and medical care, inferior education and suffer atrocities such as eve teasing, rape, wife-beating etc.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1036" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="486pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251640832; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 650px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1036" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.4 ELEEMENTS OF THE GENDER SYSTEM:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1035" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="486pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251639808; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 650px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1035" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <h2><span style="">Role Stereotyping<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span></b>The female biological functions of reproduction are extended to rearing of children and catering to household work. On the other hand the role of the male is to earn for the family. Accordingly, both sexes are socialized to these predetermined but separate roles. Even in society where both men and women are called upon to earn, the primary roles associated with social values have remained unchanged. Thus even if women earn an income, their responsibility towards household chores remains undiminished. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Child preference on the basis of sex</b><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""> </span></b>The corresponding social status availed by the male due to his being the inheritor, the protector of the family and its interest, the “doer”, a male child is valued. Moreover, it is the sons who are an old age insurance for the parents, since the daughters get married and leave the family. Besides, daughter implies expenses such as dowry. Thus a male child is preferred by society. In fact, male child preference is so strong that in certain areas a wife who does not produce a male child is called ‘Kulachhani’, destroyer of the family since name will not be carried forward. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1038" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251642880; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1038" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.5 IMPACT OF THE GENDER SYSTEM ON WOMEN<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1037" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251641856; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 638px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1037" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The practice of male-female differentiation results in structural deprivation of the female (of life-female foeticide / infanticide – of access to health and medical services, inheritance, education etc.). Female discrimination at the behavioural level (un-employment, low productivity skills, health care, public life etc.) and infliction of atrocities (dowry harassment, eve-teasing, wife beating, rape etc.). The structural conditions affect society as a whole where as behavioural manifestations affect individual in specific situation. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1040" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251644928; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1040" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.6 CASTE AND CLASS AS AXIS OF INEQUALTY:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1039" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251643904; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1039" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Caste and class both are status groups. A status group is an association of individuals who enjoy a distinctive style of life and a certain consciousness of kind. However, castes are perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status while classes are defined in terms of the relations of production. The members of a class have a similar socio-economic status in relation to other classes in the society, while the members of a caste have either a high or a low ritual status in relation to other castes. </p> <h2><span style="">Caste as a Unit and as a System<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Caste is considered viewed both as a unit and as a system. It is also understood as a structural phenomenon as well as a cultural phenomenon. As a unit, caste can be defined as a ‘closed rank status group’, that is a group in which the status of the members, their occupation, the field of mate selection and interaction with others is fixed. As a system, it refers to interrelated status and patterned interaction among castes in terms of collectivity of restrictions, namely, restriction on change of membership, occupation, marriage and communal relations. In viewing caste as a system, there is pre-supposition that no caste can exist in isolation and that each caste is closely involved with other castes in the network of economic, political, and ritual relationships. The ‘closed-rank group’ feature of caste also explains its structure. As a cultural phenomenon, caste may be viewed as a “ set of values. Beliefs and practices.” </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1042" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251646976; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1042" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.7 CLASS <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1041" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251645952; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 638px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1041" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>A social class is “one of two or more broad groups of individual who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior positions.” (Ginsberg, Morris: 1961) Thus, in a social class there is – <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="">a feeling of equality </span></b><span style="">in relation to members of one’s own class. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="">a consciousness </span></b><span style="">that one’s mode of behaviour will harmony with the behaviour of similar standards of life.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">individuals belonging to the same social class are expected <b>to maintain similar standards of life, </b>and<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">to <b>choose their occupations within a limited range </b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">there is <b>realization of similarity of attitude and behaviour </b>with the members of one class.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">there is a <b>feeling of inferiority </b>in relation to those who stand above in the social scale <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">there is a feeling of superiority to those below in social hierarchy.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1046" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251651072; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1046" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.8 AXIS OF INEQUALITY OF CASTE AND CLASS<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1045" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251650048; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 638px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1045" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>If we look at our society, we find that people are divided in categories (in castes and classes) on the basis on birth, religion, race, language and speech, education, occupation and wealth etc. and society is heterogeneous in nature. Individuals are placed higher or lower in a status scale based on these characteristics. Thus social barriers are erected in the way of lower category (caste and class) people’s overall development. This has given birth to several inequalities: </p> <h1><span style="">Caste<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">restricts mobility of working class especially of marginalized.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Leads to untouchability, slavery and is responsible for many other social evils and vices like child marriage, dowry system, purda system and casteism. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">responsible for low status of women.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">is bed-rock of religious discrimination and fundamentalism. </li></ul> <h2><span style="">Class<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The dream to alter property-relations in favour of less privileged has yet to see ray of the day. </li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;">Further the persisting inter and intra-caste, class and community inequalities as well as wide spread unrest are also result of prevailing contradictions in our social system. Such as: </p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We continue to follow the traditional values whereas our roles have become modern.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We profess that <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> is committed to bring equality but in reality it is mired in an age-old system of caste and class.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We claim ourselves as rationalist but we bear with injustice and unfairness with fatalistic resignation. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We speak in favour of individualism but we reinforce collectivism.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Inspite of formulation of so many laws and modification of old laws, the common people have not been benefitted from these because they are either not being implemented or are full of loopholes which have benefitted only to legal profession. </li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><span style="">Check your progress I<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style=""> </span>Indicate if the following statements are true or false. Put a ( <span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">Ö</span></span> ) in the relevant box.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1056" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251661312; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 20px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1056" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1055" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:369pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251660288; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 20px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1055" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->Check your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>True<span style=""> </span>False</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">(a) Gender is a biological classification.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1057" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251662336; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 1px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1057" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1058" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:6in;margin-top:1.55pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251663360; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 1px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1058" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->(b) The codes of the organization that affect all aspects of social functioning </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1059" style="'position:absolute;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251664384; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 22px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1059" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1061" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:369pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251666432; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 22px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1061" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->is the gender system. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">(c) Even if women earn an income, their responsibility towards household </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1066" style="'position:absolute;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251671552; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 14px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1066" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1060" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:369pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251665408; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 14px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1060" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->chores remains unchanged. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1067" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251672576; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 23px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1067" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1068" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:369pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251673600; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 23px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1068" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->(d) Classes are considered as hereditary groups.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">(e) Caste is responsible for low status of women. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1062" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251667456; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 4px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1062" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1064" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:369pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251669504; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 4px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1064" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->(f) Society is heterogeneous is nature.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1065" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251670528; left: 0px; margin-left: 491px; margin-top: 12px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1065" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1063" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:6in;margin-top:9.7pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251668480; left: 0px; margin-left: 575px; margin-top: 12px; width: 26px; height: 26px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1063" height="26" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]-->(g) Caste promotes optimum productivity.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">2. Give the main difference between – </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">(a) Gender and Sex</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">(b) Caste and Class</p> <h3>Hint. See section 4.2</h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal">3. Enlist any five practices of castes and class system, which promote inequalities in society. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">………………………………………………………………………………………………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1048" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251653120; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1048" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="">4.2.9<span style=""> </span>FACTIONALISM <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1047" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251652096; left: -1px; top: 10px; width: 638px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1047" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Factionalism is a situation / condition in which ‘sub-castes’ (within the caste) function as ‘factions’ (conflict groups) than as ‘caste groups’ to achieve their purpose. Prof. K. N. Sharma has termed them ‘resource groups’ with a view to lay stress on their collaborative function. Occasionally, the ‘alliance’ between the groups is restricted only for the duration of achievement of the purpose. Mostly families are engaged in such alliances. Nevertheless, in some cases even brothers of same families have joined various factions and have disassociated themselves from each other at the cost of their kinship relationships. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The faction (within the sub-caste) is an association of a few core families to face challenges from other families, or to secure help in court cases, and so on. Such factions / alliances can be seen in the evening when people come back from their fields or offices and cluster in small groups to spend together their leisure time. In this way the closeness with the group is strengthened daily by intimate and informal relations and its strength is activated time to time for status defense or exaggeration. A faction may continue for decades or for few years or few months or it may change unexpectedly as no hard and fast rules ties the members together. However, within the faction, caste / sub-caste are of notable significance in towns and cities.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The strength of the factions depends on wealth, manpower and ability to mobilize resources and influence from outside the village. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Now a days, factionalism has become a serious problem and posing a serious threat to the traditional unity and solidarity of our village and tribal communities. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The legal sanction accorded to various types of leadership positions in the Panchayati Raj system, under 73 Constitutional Amendment Act, is not so much beneficial. Rather, it has widely, very strongly and seriously hampered all the efforts to promote development of villages in the country. As they (factions) oppose one another, not because of any genuine reason or rhyme but simply for the sake of showing the opposition and demonstration of their strength. As a consequence, any effort made by any change agent- external or internal, to promote co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community, gets badly thwarted.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1049" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,3.6pt" to="477pt,3.6pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251654144; left: -1px; top: 4px; width: 638px; height: 6px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1049" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal">4.2.10 PROTECTING THE RIGHTS OF MARGINALISE GROUPS. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1050" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,3pt" to="477pt,3pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251655168; left: -1px; top: 3px; width: 638px; height: 5px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1050" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><b>Marginalized People: <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>The people of marginalized groups do not form a compact territorial community. They are forced to live wretchedly, enduring exploitation, oppression, violence and numerous indignities. Those groups in society who, due to poverty, culture, language, religion, migrant status or other disadvantages have not been much benefitted from health, education, employment and other developmental opportunities. Most of them are the landless labourers, rural poors with small piece of land, artisans, workers in unorganized sectors, women, S.Cs and S.Ts etc. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><b>Existing Provisions for Protection of Rights of Marginalized: <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Although government has made various constitutional, legal and non-legal socio-economic provisions to safeguard the interests of marginalized people and to ensure their overall development, even then, their condition is not significantly changed. The concept of social justice is also stirring the government and people into new and more vital fields of state action to make available the benefits of ‘Welfare State’ to various sections of the society, specially to marginalized people. Various laws relating to payment of wages, social security, regulatory legislations and social justice etc. have been enacted fixing the working hours, minimum wages of labourer and to improve their working conditions. Further numerous laws meant for land reforms- Ceiling, Consolidation, Land Alienation, Credit facility and debt relief have been passed. Besides these different social security, income generating and village infra-structure development schemes and programmes have been implemented. Mention may be made of – <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">1. Constitutional Provisions:</p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Fundamental Rights and Duties</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Directive Principles of State Policy</li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">2. Legal and Non-legal Socio-economic Provisions</p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Payment of wages Act 1936 & 1971 </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Minimum Wages Act – 1948</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Equal Remuneration Act – 1978</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Contract labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act 1971 & 1986</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Bonded Labour Act 1976</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Inter-state Migration Act 1979</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Civil Rights Protection Act 1955</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">SCs and STs (Atrocities Protection) Act 1989</li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(iii) Commissions Programmes and Schemes: </p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">National Commission for SCs and STs. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">20 points economic programmes</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">National Schemes for liberation and rehabilitation of scavengers and their dependents 1992</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Special Area Development Programmes (like DPAP, DDP, IWDP, HADP, CADP and ITADP)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Minimum Needs Programmes</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">National Social Assistance Programmes (such as NOPS, NFBS, NMBS and Annapurna etc.)</li></ul> <h1 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Lapses in Existing Provisions and Programmes<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The existing communication channels for creating awareness and sensitization are not adequate and effective and do not reach to marginalize people. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Lack of integrated approach in macro-policies in tackling the issues related to marginalized people. </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Lack of strong and effective organizational support to voice their concerns and lobbying for them. </li></ul> <h2><span style="">Steps be taken to protect the Rights of Marginalized <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Inspite of all these initiatives taken by the government, we find that the needs and problems of marginalized people in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> are not resolved satisfactorily. Their needs and problems are multifarious and multi-dimensional in nature. These can be tackled by changing the attitudes of the society as well as nation towards marginalized people. Therefore, for protecting the rights of marginalized people following suggestions / measures can be effective and useful. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">They should be sensitized about their conditions / situations and other factors responsible for their deplorable conditions. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">They should be made aware of their constitutional and legal rights both in their work and in social sphere. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Training for skills development and income generation is another crucial aspect. Training must be provided on occupations which pre-suppose training. The duration of training may vary from <st1:time hour="13" minute="0" st="on">1</st1:time> to 6 months with the nature of the chosen occupations to equip them with new methods, techniques and skills for increasing their earnings. Further since they are daily wage earners, they should be paid for their wages loss during training period either in cash or in kind to create interest in training programmes. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">There should be provision of counselling services on all family, community and other socio-economic issues. </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">There is need to build, strengthen and utilize the fullest capabilities of Village Community Organizations (V.C.Os) in rural development specially for the upliftment of marginalized groups. </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Pleading for setting up of (free or nominal fee paid) Legal Aid Counselling Centres at district / Taluka and block level by the government and / or N.G.Os with effective monitoring system. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">To develop right from grass-root level to national level organizations of these people for protection and promotion of their rightful claims and to provide them guidance required for this organized struggle. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your Progress II<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 17.85pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Notes: (a) Write your answer on a separate sheet, as the space below is inadequate. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>(b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of the unit. <span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 39.75pt; text-indent: -21.75pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><span style=""> </span>What do you understand by Factionalism? Discuss its purpose and basis of coming into existence. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 39.75pt; text-indent: -21.75pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Who are called marginalized people? List out any five measures taken by the government to protect the rights of this group. (Hint: Section 4.10)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1070" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251675648'" from="18pt,15.3pt" to="477pt,15.3pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="19" width="23"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1070" height="2" width="614" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.3 Impact of Macro-Policies: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1069" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251674624'" from="18pt,.9pt" to="477pt,.9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251674624; left: 0px; margin-left: 23px; margin-top: 1px; width: 614px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1069" height="2" width="614" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Everyone agrees that the process of globalization has increased the gap between rich and poor greater, both within and between the countries. The ideology associated with globalization is that of ‘market forces’ economics. Government action and control is now seen as the cause of inflation, debt and economic recession while the private sector is promoted as the creator of efficiency and growth. Global and national thinking and policy is therefore oriented towards privatization, liberalization and subsidization, regulation and promotion of national enterprise are frowned upon. Declining international assistance and increasing debt forced many governments to accept conditions imposed by the World Bank and World Trade Organization. Some of these conditions that have specific reference to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> include:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Removal of subsidy on agriculture.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Embargo on import restriction.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Abolition of Public distribution system.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Allowing entry of foreign MNCs into <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Acceptance of intellectual properties rights.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 58pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Cancellation of the Indian patents Acts. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Keeping in view the above facts, we can say that the international institutions like International Monetary Fund, World Bank and World Trade Organization have deeply influenced the policies and programmes of our nation in their interests as well as in the interest of developed countries which have badly affected the people in general and marginalized in particular, namely -<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The ‘growth centered model’ for development aimed only at economic growth and increased Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. But it could achieve these at great social and environmental costs. Within three decades, it became obvious that the dominant model had by passed large sections of society, leading to greater disparity, further marginalizing the deprived sections. The special programmes initiated for the vulnerable sections failed to make an impact because the people were treated as mere ‘beneficiaries’ and ‘objects’ of development. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Thus the ‘trickle down theory’ adopted by the ‘dominating power structure’ did not entail the desired development and the number of people below the poverty line increased. In the name of development nature, has been exploited to the fullest, irreparably damaging the environment. Concentration and control of resources now lies in the hands of a few individuals, while the majority of the population are silent ‘recipients’ of the programmes.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The ‘Green Revolution’ has further marginalized the small and marginal farmers who became landless in the process. These farmers, unable to utilize the new technology, sold their land to large land owners. The later in turn became richer by drawing the benefits of subsidies offered by the Government. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Due to the Indian economy’s added emphasis on industrialization, there has been a strong urban and rural bias. The rural agricultural economy suffered so much that migrants flocked to cities in search of employment. As cities did not have the capacity to accommodate a large population, problems relating to health, sanitation, education, consumerism and unemployment increased the inequality, already existing in the cities. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Rapid advancement in technology, which plays a vital role in profit maximization, has further marginalized weaker and vulnerable sections of Indian Society. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Moreover, the development of many high yielding and refined verities of food grains developed by rich countries which can be used only for consumption purposes and not as seeds to be sown in the field, have further worsened the situation through monopolization of the seed market in developing countries like India in which farmers are compelled to purchase seeds at very high prices and are compelled by exigencies of the situation to sell their produce at throwaway prices.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Even essential life saving drugs have been monopolized by developed nations and they are being sold in beyond the affording capacity of common man to purchase them<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The pressure of the World Bank to withdraw all kinds of subsidies, thus, far enjoyed by people in India in diverse fields like fertilizers, electricity, petrol, diesel, etc. has added to the economic burden to be shouldered by the common people in the country particularly marginal and small farmers and small scale entrepreneurs. This has adversely affected the production and distribution of various types of goods and services. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your progress III<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">a) Use the space given below for your answer.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">b) Check your answers with the model answers given at the end of this unit. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Name those international organizations that have deeply affected our macro policies and programmes. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Choose the appropriate word for each blank from the group of words given below. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Market Forces, dominating power structure, vulnerable sections, Rural Agricultural, Environmental Crisis, Technology, cities in search of jobs, Ecological balance, Marginalization, Small and Marginal farmers, Utilize the new technology.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The ideology associated with globalization is that of ………. Economics.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The trickle down theory adopted by the ………………. did not entail the desired development.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The special programmes initiated for the development of ………….failed to make any impact. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The Green Revolution has further marginalized IV(a)…………… as they were unable to IV(b)……………<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>V.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">V(a) The …………economy suffered so much that migrants flocked to V(b)……………..<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>VI.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Rapid advancement in VI(a)………plays a vital role in VI(b)………… of weaker and vulnerable sections. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -1.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>VII.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Unplanned exploitation of natural resources has badly disturbed the<span style=""> </span>VII(a) ……….. and created as serious VII(b)……………<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1052" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251657216; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1052" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal">4.4 UNIONIZATION STRATEGIES:</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1051" style="'position:absolute;" from="0,8.4pt" to="477pt,8.4pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251656192; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1051" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Unionization is the process of organizing the unorganized people for their specific goal and interest. In unionization the oppressed, exploited, weaker, vulnerable and marginalized people (this includes individual(s), group(s) and / or community(ies) voluntarily organize themselves in union(s) on the basis of equality to identify and rank their needs / problems / issues; to secure their essential demands; to protect and promote their interests by collective action; accepting the principle of majority rule and maximum participation of community people in each and every step of community organization and development process. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Whereas an overall approach to bring change in the situation may be termed as ‘strategy’. It includes roles for worker and client, tasks to be performed by each and every one and methods and techniques to be used. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>In order to unionize target i.e. community people, the following strategies of unionization, which can be practiced. Let us now discuss some of these strategies: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Information collection and community meetings.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Conscientisation <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Formation of plans and programmes (through P.R.A). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><span style="">Capacity</span></st1:PlaceName><span style=""> <st1:placetype st="on">Building</st1:PlaceType></span></st1:place><span style=""> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Collaboration and co-ordination <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Networking <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Information Collection and Community Meetings:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>This deals with organizing formal and informal meetings of community people. Visiting and observing the community for gathering the different information. Besides these it includes: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Identification and prioritization / ranking of needs / problems / issues and stakeholders.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Creation of awareness about these felt needs / priorities of problems and consciousness among community people. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Identification of Nucleus / resource persons / opinion leaders and formal and informal leaders of various socio-cultural / vocational groups and sub-groups.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Conscientisation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="">The strategy is based on Paulo Friere’s approach of generating awareness and sensitization among masses through education. In his opinion, if people were motivated to analyse their own reality, they could be active participants in transforming it. The consciousness gained through the critical process of reasoning and reflection leads to action that in turn can reduce the exploitative tendencies in the present economic structure. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Planning and formulation of plans and Programmes (through P.R.A.):<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Planning involves the entire act right from the starring of consciousness regarding a problem to the steps taken to resolve that problem. This can at least be achieved by having rapport with the people and involving them in designing the development of project. To meet this specific need of the people application of Participatory Rural Appraisal Technique (PRA) is required.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Participatory Rural Appraisal<span style=""> </span>(P.R.A):<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>P.R.A. is seen as a family of methods and approaches to enable local people to analyze, plan and act based on their own life situation and knowledge. This includes: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">i)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Village census mapping<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">ii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Resource mapping and institutional mapping <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">iii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Village transect walk<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">iv)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Time line<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">v)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Trend Diagram<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">vi)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Matrix and Wealth mapping<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><b><span style="">Capacity</span></b></st1:PlaceName><b><span style=""> <st1:placetype st="on">Building</st1:PlaceType></span></b></st1:place><b><span style="">: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="">As the capacity of poor people is strengthened (by utilizing and improving their skills, changing their perceptions and attitudes and ensuring their active participation as responsible participator) and their voice begin to be heard, they become “ claimants” who are capable of demanding and paying for goods and services from government and private sector agencies. Under these changed circumstances, the mechanisms to satisfy their needs will change as well. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Collaboration and Co-ordination:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>When two or more persons (i.e. helpers) working jointly on the basis of a common plan of action, then it is called collaboration. In collaboration each one of the helpers are accountable for certain aspects of work / service to a client. They may belong to one agency or many agencies; they may be social workers and / or may be from several other professional disciplines. Thus we can say that it is a medium of integration of various services being provided, description of role and services to be delivered by each of the participant, and making sure that conflicting and confusing messages are not given to clients. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Whereas in Co-ordination, two or more service providers work together. This does not involve a common action plan; in fact, there may be two or more action plans. For effective co-ordination, spirit of working together towards a desirable end is must. Further, the mutual satisfaction of all concerned persons and agencies involved in it is an important aspect. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Networking<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Networking is also the social work strategy practiced to bring diverse social structures together to accomplish a common purpose or shared goal. Networking involves establishing coordinated and collaborative relationships in order to access the resources of other persons and social systems. Social workers network human service organizations, other social structures like business and industry and influential community leaders. Networking promotes collaboration in identifying service gaps and barriers and encourages inter-agency planning to address unmet service delivery needs. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Although, the problem of unionizing / organizing the poor is complicated. But there are examples where the poor have organized themselves on the basis of common economic interests and thereby developing a counter weight that offsets their lingering import once in local government or by formation of restrictive organizations based on interest groups, small farmers, co-operatives, landless workers, unions, association of women organization, rural youth brigrades or through organization of political disadvantaged for direct political action as in case of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. Similar kinds of experiment may be found in Anand Dairy, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Gujarat</st1:City>, <st1:country-region st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region></st1:place>, Commilla project of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Mauritus and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Burma</st1:place></st1:country-region> in addition to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1071" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251676672'" from="0,9pt" to="477pt,9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251676672; left: -1px; top: 11px; width: 638px; height: 13px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1071" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1072" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251677696'" from="0,15.3pt" to="477pt,15.3pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251677696; left: 0px; margin-left: -1px; margin-top: 19px; width: 638px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1072" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.5 Dealing with Authorities:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="">Authorities are those persons, who have power to give order and make other to obey. They are various segments of the government and non-government officials, responsible for policy and plan formulation, implementation, maintenance of law and order (with peace and harmony) and provide justice to its people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>In other words, authorities have to ensure conducive environment for holistic and sustainable development of people, right from the small village level to the Nation as a whole. But it could not happen so, due to ‘ego-centric’ style of functioning of the authorities, instead of ‘people-centric’ style. As a result of it, the majority of people are in a pitiable situation. For improving their conditions and providing their dues to them, the following strategies can be practiced to deal with authorities as and when required; <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(i)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Submission of petition<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(ii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Persuation <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(iii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Bargaining <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(iv)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Negotiation <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(v)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Lobbying and Advocacy<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(vi)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Conflictual / Confrontational strategies <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Submission of Petition: </span></b><span style="">Submission of petition<b> </b>is a formal written application (which contains mainly in very brief the issues and problems, their nature and extent of peoples’ suffering) signed by affected and/or interested persons and appealing the concern authority to solve the problem on sustainable ground. This petition is submitted to related officials. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Persuation:</span></b><span style=""> After submission of petition to concern authority when no response is received from him / her then persuation strategy is used. In persuation efforts are made to influence the individual to change their outlook by providing them needed information. This also involves the adoption of set of actions / procedures to bring about change by arguing, giving reasoning, urging and inducing others to accept a viewpoint and resolve the issues / problems. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Bargaining:</span></b><span style=""> Bargaining is a process of discussion and negotiation between two parties, one or both of which is a group of persons acting in concert. The resulting bargain is an undertakings as to terms and conditions under a continuing service is to be performed. (Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences).<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Negotiation: </span></b><span style="">In negotiation communication linkage is established between two or more than two groups having disagreement on a particular issue / problem. The communication linkages are established so that the concerned groups are able to icon-out their difficulties, understand each others point of view. And come out that mutually acceptable decision. The community organizer may act as negotiator if it is acceptable to all the concerned parties. Besides it, he facilitates such development so that the rival groups can come on the same platform to workout their differences. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Lobbying and Advocacy: </span></b><span style="">Lobbying is a technique of influencing the legislation and creating legislative opinion favourable to the group or interest on behalf of which the lobby operates. Instead of attempting to influence legislation directly, the lobbyist may use the technique of pressure group lobbing. Wherein the pressure group seek to create an appearance of broad public support for its aims. This appearance may be genuine or artificial. Anyhow the aim is to influence the legislative policy.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Advocacy involves ‘pleading and fighting for the service of the clients, whom the service system otherwise rejects. It requires seeking different interpretations or exceptions to rules and regulations, to clients’ rights to services and undertaking aware above the blockages to clients in receiving or using an agency’s services. In advocacy, the worker speaks on behalf of client. Before engaging in advocacy a worker must first be sure that the client(s) desire(s) the worker to intervene in this manner. The client should clearly understand the risks involved and be motivated to use the service(s) if it is obtained. Secondly, the worker must carefully assess the risks involved for the client if advocacy is used. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Conflictual / Confrontational Strategies: </span></b><span style="">The basic hypothesis, on which the conflictual and confrontational strategy is practised, is that those who are in favour of status quo and those who are in favour of change, fight with each other. Hence, the dynamics of conflict is inevitable in the process of community organization and action initiative. This may invite agitational techniques like protest, demonstration and civil disobedience or direct action etc.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>However, it must be remembered that it is easier to mobilize people through protests and demonstration than civil disobedience or direct action etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1073" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251678720'" from="0,16.25pt" to="486pt,16.25pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251678720; left: -1px; top: 21px; width: 650px; height: 23px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1073" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.6 Protests and Demonstrations<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1074" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251679744'" from="0,1.85pt" to="486pt,1.85pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251679744; left: 0px; margin-left: -1px; margin-top: 1px; width: 650px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1074" height="2" width="650" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="">When people are dissatisfied with social institutions that frustrate them and their needs as well. As a consequence, they have desire to change that social institutions because they are not able to solve their social problem. This situation creates social tension, unrest and instability among them and leads to social movement. Thus social movements could be looked upon as collective efforts to change the society. Generally these are started by those, who are shocked by social injustices. Social Movement can be seen in shape of protests, demonstrations marches, rioting and rebellion etc. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Protest:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Protest is verbal, written and / or legal expression of dissent, disagreement or disapproval of any imposition of official policy / curtailment of facility/ increasement of tax or any other unwarranted condition by the government/ organization / association or group of people or by the existing system. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>It is an effort to block the proposed change or to uproot a change already achieved. It is observed that in protest victimization is the cause and victims are the potential protesters. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>The following are some common features of protest: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Protest is primarily an expression of feelings.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">This expression may be verbal in writing or through legal way.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The main purpose of protest is to oppose or to disapprove the action initiated by the government, institution or existing social system. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The reason of protest is victimization of people in general or some section of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Victims actively participate in the protest as ‘potential protesters’.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Protest remains sectional rather than general. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Community as a whole is not mobilized around social cause(s).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Demonstrations: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Demonstration is a method of expression of peoples’ sentiments / emotions and feelings readily in favour / support of or in against the government / public organizations / institutions or associations. In demonstration the individuals gather together to give expression or to manifest their demands or sentiments. The members of demonstrative group are interested more in voicing their grievance, than in destruction, by organizing meetings, rally or public marches. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>The demonstrative crowd may turn into an aggressive / protestive crowd if any effort is made to disperse it by violence means. It enables the group to understand better the cause of a problem and also results in an action. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>A good demonstration:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 39pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">should be based on problem(s)/situation(s) which is important and true to the real life of the audience. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 39pt; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">is in which it should be decided first, what is to be exactly conveyed to the audience. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">makes the message easier to understand and accept.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">facilitates clarifications and discussion among people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">generates sympathetic and favourable environment. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">includes the preparation of exhibits (like Posters, Charts, Placards and Banmers etc.) that are required for the same.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">is in which locally available cheap and best materials are effectively and impressively used to reduce the unnecessary expenses and generates peoples’ appreciation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your Progress IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Note: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 37.5pt; text-indent: -19.5pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Use the space given below for your answer. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 37.5pt; text-indent: -19.5pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Check your answer with model answers given at the end of this unit<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1. Bring out the distinguishing features of Unionization strategies. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. Point out the strategies, which are used to deal with authorities.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3. List out any five attributes of Demonstration and protest.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1075" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251680768'" from="0,11.8pt" to="477pt,11.8pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251680768; left: -1px; top: 15px; width: 638px; height: 17px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1075" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1076" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251681792'" from="0,18.1pt" to="477pt,18.1pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251681792; left: 0px; margin-left: -1px; margin-top: 23px; width: 638px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1076" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.7 Let us Sum Up: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>In this unit, you have learned the meaning of gender, castes and classes, difference between gender and sex, concept of gender system and its elements and prevailing inequalities in the communities due to gender, castes and classes. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>You saw that how different factions promote factionalism. And now a days, it has threatened the traditional unity and solidarity of our rural and urban communities. We have also discussed the meaning of marginalized people, existing constitutional, legal and non-legal socio-economic provisions to safeguard the interests of marginalized people, lacunas in these and steps are to be taken to protect their rights. We have attempted to acquaint you with the impact of macro-policies on general masses especially on marginalized people. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>For your understanding, we have explained different strategies like unionization, dealing with authorities, protests and demonstration. Unionization includes mainly conscientisation. Formulation of plans and programmes preferably through P.R.A., <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Capacity</st1:PlaceName> <st1:placetype st="on">Building</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, Collaboration, Co-ordination and Networking. Dealing with authorities incorporates. Submission of petition, persuasion, bargaining, negotiation, lobbying and advocacy and conflictual / confrontational strategies. The basic features of protests and demonstration and their effective use have been described. Usually protests and demonstration generate sympathetic and favourable environment.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1077" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251682816'" from="0,17.1pt" to="477pt,17.1pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251682816; left: -1px; top: 22px; width: 638px; height: 24px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1077" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.8 Key Words</span><span style="">:<b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1078" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251683840'" from="0,2.7pt" to="477pt,2.7pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251683840; left: -1px; top: 3px; width: 638px; height: 5px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1078" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Globalization:</span></b><span style=""> this term is used for the move towards a global economy where borders cease to matter. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Green Revolution: </span></b><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Green Revolution is the term, which has been used for describing the manifold increase in India’s farm production and productivity, particularly in the case of the major cereal crops, consequent to the adoption of the ‘New Agricultural Policy’ since late sixties. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Macro Policies: </span></b><span style="">The policies which affect the large sections of population and which relate to production and income, improvement in quality of life and overall development etc. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Patriarchy: </span></b><span style="">This may be defined as <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Rule of Father<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">System of male domination where men are considered as superior.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Greater access to resources and decision making process. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The patriarchal structure or system is based on the ideology of man’s superiority. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Social system: </span></b><span style="">A system is composed of interrelated and interdependent parts (persons and sub systems). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Trickle Down Theory:</span></b><span style=""> Trickle Down Theory emphasized on the growth in Gross National Product and it was assumed till the third Five Year Plan that the benefit of Gross National Product would percolate down to the masses and enhance their income levels. But it could not happened as assumed. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1079" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251684864'" from="0,11pt" to="477pt,11pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251684864; left: -1px; top: 14px; width: 638px; height: 16px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1079" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1080" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251685888'" from="0,17.3pt" to="477pt,17.3pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251685888; left: 0px; margin-left: -1px; margin-top: 22px; width: 638px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1080" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.9 Suggested <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City>: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Cox, F.M. et al (Ed). (1987): Strategies of Community Organization: A book of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed. <st1:place st="on">Itasca</st1:place>, 12, FE Peacock.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Dubey Muchkund(ed). (1995): Indian Society Today: Challenges of Equality, Integration and Empowerment, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Delhi</st1:place></st1:City>: Har Anand Publication.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Gangrade, K.D. (1971): Community Organization in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Bombay</st1:place></st1:City>: Popular Prakashan.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Ghurya, G.S. (1961): Class, Caste and Occupation, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Bombay</st1:place></st1:City>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Oxford</st1:PlaceName> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> Press.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Pascual Gisbert S.J. (1999): Fundamentals of Sociology <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Hyderabad</st1:place></st1:City>: Orient Logman Ltd., IIIrd Edition. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Pathania, Sunita (1999): “Globalization, Culture and Gender: Some issues: Globalizaion, Culture and Women Development, Jaipur: Rawat Publications. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Paulo Freire (1992): Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Penguin Book. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="">Siddique, H.Y. (1997): Working the Communities: An Introduction to Community Work, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">New Delhi</st1:place></st1:City>: Hira Publications.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1053" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251658240'" from="0,18.6pt" to="477pt,18.6pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251658240; left: -1px; top: 23px; width: 638px; height: 25px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1053" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <br /> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1054" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251659264'" from="0,15.9pt" to="477pt,15.9pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251659264; left: 0px; margin-left: -1px; margin-top: 20px; width: 638px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1054" height="2" width="638" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">4.10 Model Answers<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Check your progress I <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False (e)True (f) False (g) False <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. (a) Difference between Gender and Sex can be identified as -<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid white; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Gender<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: white white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Sex<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is socially defined<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is biologically defined<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">talks about socio-cultural difference<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">talks about natural difference<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is made by society<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is naturally made<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is variable<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is constant <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. (b) Difference between Caste and Class are as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid white; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Caste<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: white white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Class<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is understood as hereditary group<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">is understood in terms of relations of production<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">has fixed ritual status<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">has no ritual status<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style=""><span style="">the members of a caste follow either a high or low ritual status in relation to other castes <o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style=""><span style="">the members of a class maintain a similar socio-economic status in relation to other class in society.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.35pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style=""><span style="">does not require any subjective consciousness within the members<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color white white -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 246.4pt;" valign="top" width="411"> <p class="MsoBodyText" style=""><span style="">Consciousness is required for continuing in a class<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style=""> </span>Caste and Class are basically responsible for perpetuating inequalities in the society such as they: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">are responsible for low status of women. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">deny equal rights to all irrespective of their caste creed, colour and class. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">develop a feeling of deprivation among various lower castes and classes especially among marginalized class. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">are to be questioned for non-alteration of property relations in favour of less privileged castes and classes people. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">promote slavery and many other social evils and vices. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your progress II<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1. Factionalism may be termed as a situation in which ‘Sub-castes’ (within the caste) work as cliques or ‘factions’ (conflict-groups) than as ‘caste groups’ for their selfish motives. When that motive/purpose is achieved, the alliance may continue for another purpose or may break down. They may form / join other alliances for the same. It is observed that generally families have constituted different ‘cliques’. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Thus, we can say that faction is an association of a few ‘core families’ to face the growing challenges from other families or factions, and to get support from them in case of police, court or in any other disturbing issues. The basis of forming these alliances depends on wealth, manpower and capacity to bring influence from outside the village. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. Marginalized are those groups of society, who for the reasons of poverty, culture, language, religion, migrant status or other disadvantages have not been benefited from health, education, employment and other developmental opportunities. Most of them are landless labourers, rural poor with small piece of land, artisans, workers in unorganized sectors, women, SCs and STs etc. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Various steps for ensuring social justice, rural upliftment and protecting the rights of marginalize people have been taken by government. Laws concerning land reforms, land ceiling, consolidation, land alienation laws as well as social security laws and schemes have been framed. Mention may be made of – <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Payment of Wages Act – 1936 and 1971<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Minimum Wages Act – 1948<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Equal Remuneration Act – 1978<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Civil Rights Protection – 1955<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">SCs and STs (Atrocities Prohibition) Act 1989.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojagar Yojna (SGSY)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Sampoorna Gram Rojagar Yojna (SGRY)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your progress III<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">(a) International Monetary Fund<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(b) World Bank and <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>(c) World Trade Organization<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. (i) Market forces (ii) dominating power structure (iii) vulnerable sections (iv) a. Small and Marginal Farmers, b. Utilize the new technology. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">V. (a) Rural Agricultural (b) Cities in search of jobs. (vi) a. Technology<span style=""> </span>b. marginalization <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(vii) a. Ecological balance<span style=""> </span>b. environmental crisis<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="">Check your progress IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1. Unionization is the process of organizing the unorganized people for their specific goal and interest. For this purpose some strategies are used as ‘Unionization Strategies’ to unionize them and those who are unionize, to keep them intact with their association. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(i)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Information collection and Community meeting<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(ii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Conscientisation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(iii)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Formulation of plan(s) and programme(s)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(iv)</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Capacity building<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(v)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Collaboration and co-ordination<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">(vi)</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> Networking<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2. (i) Submission of petition-verbal / written<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(ii) Persuation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(iii) Bargaining<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(iv) Negotiation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(v) Lobbying and Advocacy<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">(vi) Conflictual / confrontational strategies. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3 (1) Protest<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">It is basically an expression of feelings and sentiments in verbal or writing and / or legal means. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The main purpose is to oppose or to dis-approve the action initiated by the government or by existing social system. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The main reason of protest has been noticed as victimization of people in general or some section of population. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Victims actively participate in the protest as ‘potential protesters.’ <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Community as a whole is not mobilized around social cause(s). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3. (ii) Demonstration: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">demonstration makes the message easier to understand and accept. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">it facilitates clarifications and discussions among people. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">it generates sympathetic and favourable environment. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">it should be based on problems/situation(s) which is / are important and true to real life of the audience. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">is in which locally available cheap and best materials are effectively and impressively used to reduce the unnecessary expenses and generates people’s appreciation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <br /><br /> <div style="border-style: solid none none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium medium; padding: 1pt 0in 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">ROLE OF COMMUNITY ORGANISER IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: none none solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color -moz-use-text-color windowtext; border-width: medium medium 1pt; padding: 0in 0in 1pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Contents<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.0<span style=""> </span>Aims and Objectives<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Settings of Community Organization<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.3<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Steps of Community Organization<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.4<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Characteristics of A Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.5<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Roles of Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.6<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Let us Sum Up<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.7<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Key Words<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.8<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Model Answers<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">.9<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 150%;">Further <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.0<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>AIMS AND OBJECTIVES<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The aim of this lesson is to make you understand the various roles of a community organizer.<span style=""> </span>This will highlight the diverse roles which could be applied in different settings.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">After studying this unit you will be able to:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Describe the characteristics of a community organizer <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Explain the different roles of a community organizer<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Apply the different roles of a community organizer in different settings and <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Describe the steps in executing the different roles of a community organizer.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.1<span style=""> </span>INTRODUCTION<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Community organization can be practiced in different communities or settings. The community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the basis of geographical location.<span style=""> </span>The other classification of the community can be based on the caste, religion, occupation etc.<span style=""> </span>These communities are under different settings where community organization can be put into practice. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Community organization is applied when the community takes initiative in solving the problems and meetings the needs.<span style=""> </span>In such a situation the community plays different roles in dealing with the various needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>Usually within the community either the interested people or the people who are affected by an issue take up the lead in addressing the problem.<span style=""> </span>In other words they form the community and undertake different roles in solving the problems and needs get fulfilled.<span style=""> </span>But such a process does not take place so easily and hence someone has to take the lead.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">When the initiative is not forthcoming on the part of the community an external agent or an outsider or a community organizer steps in and works with the community.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer depending on the setting, situation and the problems applies appropriate roles. The roles are likely to vary according to the settings, problems and needs.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Community organization can be used by the community organizer in different areas or settings like, rural, urban, tribal, institutional, non institutional settings.<span style=""> </span>What ever may be the settings depending up on the model of community organization like locality development, social planning and social action the community organizer has to apply different roles respectively.<span style=""> </span>Therefore a community organizer has to be familiar with all the roles of community organization.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b>1.2 <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>SETTINGS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION </b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">There are different areas where community organization has scope.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer can practice community organization in such settings. The settings can be identified based on certain characteristics like location and the nature of administration.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">Geographical Location <span style=""> </span>Rural, Urban, Tribal</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in -21.95pt 0.0001pt 2in; text-indent: -111pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">Sector<span style=""> </span>Institutional, Non – institutional<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">Or</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Organized, un – organized </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Model<span style=""> </span>Locality development</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Social planning</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>Social action</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The target group with whom the community organizer is going to work with has to be identified and understood.<span style=""> </span>The needs and problems of the community in different settings need not be the same and moreover the characteristics of the people in different settings are likely to vary and hence accordingly the methods and techniques of community organization and the roles of community organizer have to be used.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The organizer can use different methods to identify, assess the need, analyse and understand the situation.<span style=""> </span>There are two levels of understanding the first level understanding of the community by the organizer and the second level is making the community to understand their own situation.<span style=""> </span>Different methods and techniques can be used to understand and make the community to understand.<span style=""> </span>Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Appreciative Inquiry can be more useful in this regard.<span style=""> </span>Since these are not the scope of this unit it is not discussed here.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">What ever may be the settings there is a community or a group of people with needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>In other words there is discontentment which has to be focused and chanalised in such a way that the people come together, think together, plan together, implement and evaluate their actions.<span style=""> </span>In all the stages the community is fully involved and their capacity is increased in terms of access and control over resources and decision making.<span style=""> </span>Therefore in community organization the community organizer has to play different roles in making the people to be on their own without any dependency syndrome.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Though the types of settings have limited classification it can be said that where ever there are people or the like minded people or the affected people come together and can form a community in acquiring their due share from the society. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In different settings depending on the needs and problems and the situation of the community the roles and strategies have to be changed.<span style=""> </span>Moreover all the roles need not be applied in all the settings. In order to adopt different roles the community organizer has to be very clear about the process or the steps involved in the practice of community organization methods and skills and accordingly the roles can be selected and applied.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Rural area is differentiated with urban based on the population size, density of population and occupation of the people.<span style=""> </span>In any area the population is more than 5000, the density is more than 300 per square kilometer and more than 75 per cent of the people are engaged in agricultural activities such areas are called rural area. Along with these characteristics if the geographical location in general is in the hills it is called the tribal area.<span style=""> </span>In the case of urban the population is more than 5000, density is more than 300 per square kilometer and more than 75 per cent are involved in non agricultural activities.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Among the people inter personal relationship and receptiveness is high and positive in rural and tribal areas where as in urban area the primary relationship within the community is rather low.<span style=""> </span>Organizing rural and tribal people is less difficult compared to urban people.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In the institutional and non institutional settings the people are organized and not organized respectively.<span style=""> </span>In an institution due to the organizational structure there is possibility to bring the people together for any common purposed whereas in the case of non institutional there is not a structured pattern and hence it may be difficult to bring them together.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The three models of community organization expect different sets of roles.<span style=""> </span>In locality development model the people come together to discuss and decide about the improvement of an area, or locality, emphasizing the broader participation at the local level in goal determination and action. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In the social planning model the people come together and gather pertinent facts about the problems, then decide on a rational and feasible course of action.<span style=""> </span>It is a technical process of solving social problems. Arranging and delivering goods and services to people whom need them.<span style=""> </span>External help is more. Interested group members participate. Broader participation is less.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Social action model brings the people to destroy the oppressors.<span style=""> </span>Basic changes in major situations are brought about by organizing the segment of the population so that they make demands on the larger community for increased resources or treatment more in accordance with social justice and democracy and redistribution of power, resources and decision-making.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The community organizer has to see, observe and understand all the settings and the models before responding or making the people to respond to the situation.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in;"><b>1.3 STEPS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Community organization has a series of steps.<span style=""> </span>By following these steps one would be able to apply the different principles, methods and models of community organization.<span style=""> </span>The steps of community organization are discussed in the following pages.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1027" style="'position:absolute;z-index:251642880'" from="81pt,13.8pt" to="81pt,40.8pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251642880; margin-left: 102px; margin-top: 17px; width: 12px; height: 39px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1027" height="39" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in;">People /<span style=""> </span>Community<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1053" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251669504'" from="117pt,12.45pt" to="117pt,21.45pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251669504; left: 0px; margin-left: 150px; margin-top: 15px; width: 12px; height: 15px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1053" height="15" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><b>1</b>.<span style=""> </span>Are they in a difficult situation?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1028" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251643904'" from="81pt,1.75pt" to="81pt,19.75pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1031" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" from="153pt,.75pt" to="153pt,18.75pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1033" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" from="81pt,.75pt" to="153pt,.75pt"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="0" width="102"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1028 _x0000_s1031 _x0000_s1033" height="28" width="108" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1026" style="'position:absolute;" from="162pt,8.05pt" to="207pt,8.05pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251641856; left: 0px; margin-left: 215px; margin-top: 5px; width: 63px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1026" height="12" width="63" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1029" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251644928'" from="81pt,12.05pt" to="81pt,39.05pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251644928; left: 0px; margin-left: 102px; margin-top: 15px; width: 12px; height: 39px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1029" height="39" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]-->Yes <span style=""> </span>No<span style=""> </span>get out and go to other Locality</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1054" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251670528'" from="90pt,15.65pt" to="90pt,24.65pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251670528; left: 0px; margin-left: 114px; margin-top: 20px; width: 12px; height: 15px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1054" height="15" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1030" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;flip:y;z-index:251645952'" from="234pt,6.65pt" to="234pt,33.65pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251645952; left: 0px; margin-left: 306px; margin-top: 7px; width: 12px; height: 39px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1030" height="39" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1032" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;flip:x;z-index:251648000'" from="2in,6.65pt" to="234pt,6.65pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251648000; left: 0px; margin-left: 190px; margin-top: 3px; width: 123px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1032" height="12" width="123" /></span><!--[endif]--><b>2</b>.<span style=""> </span>Did they express it? </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1034" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251650048'" from="63pt,3.95pt" to="135pt,3.95pt"><v:line id="_x0000_s1035" style="'position:absolute;" from="63pt,3.95pt" to="63pt,21.95pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1036" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" from="135pt,3.95pt" to="135pt,21.95pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="4" width="78"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1034 _x0000_s1035 _x0000_s1036" height="27" width="108" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1038" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251654144'" from="63pt,12.25pt" to="63pt,39.25pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251654144; left: 0px; margin-left: 78px; margin-top: 16px; width: 12px; height: 39px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1038" height="39" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1037" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251653120'" from="147pt,6.25pt" to="192pt,6.25pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251653120; left: 0px; margin-left: 195px; margin-top: 3px; width: 63px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1037" height="12" width="63" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Yes <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>No<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>make the people to realize it</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1045" style="'position:absolute;flip:x;z-index:251661312'" from="5in,4.85pt" to="378pt,4.85pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251661312; margin-left: 478px; margin-top: 0px; width: 27px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1045" height="12" width="27" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1055" style="'position:absolute;z-index:251671552'" from="99pt,13.85pt" to="99pt,22.85pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251671552; margin-left: 126px; margin-top: 17px; width: 12px; height: 15px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1055" height="15" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1044" style="'position:absolute;flip:y;z-index:251660288'" from="378pt,4.85pt" to="378pt,49.85pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251660288; margin-left: 498px; margin-top: 4px; width: 12px; height: 63px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1044" height="63" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><b>3.</b><span style=""> </span>Did they analyse the problem for its magnitude, symptoms and causes? </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1039" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251655168'" from="63pt,2.15pt" to="63pt,20.15pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1040" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" from="63pt,2.15pt" to="135pt,2.15pt"><v:line id="_x0000_s1041" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251657216'" from="135pt,2.15pt" to="135pt,20.15pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="2" width="78"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1039 _x0000_s1040 _x0000_s1041" height="27" width="108" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1046" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251662336'" from="62pt,13.45pt" to="62pt,40.45pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251662336; left: 0px; margin-left: 77px; margin-top: 17px; width: 12px; height: 39px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1046" height="39" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1043" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251659264'" from="333pt,8.45pt" to="378pt,8.45pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251659264; left: 0px; margin-left: 443px; margin-top: 6px; width: 63px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1043" height="12" width="63" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1042" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251658240'" from="153pt,6.45pt" to="198pt,6.45pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251658240; left: 0px; margin-left: 203px; margin-top: 3px; width: 63px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1042" height="12" width="63" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Yes <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>No<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>enable them to analyse it<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1057" style="'position:absolute;flip:x;z-index:251673600'" from="335pt,3.85pt" to="479pt,3.85pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251673600;"><span style="position: absolute; left: 445px; top: -1px; width: 195px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1057" height="12" width="195" /></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1056" style="'position:absolute;z-index:251672576'" from="126pt,12.05pt" to="126pt,21.05pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251672576; margin-left: 162px; margin-top: 15px; width: 12px; height: 15px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1056" height="15" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1052" style="'position:absolute;flip:y;z-index:251668480'" from="479pt,3.05pt" to="479pt,48.05pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251668480; margin-left: 633px; margin-top: 2px; width: 12px; height: 63px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1052" height="63" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--><b>4.</b><span style=""> </span>What is their level of consciousness – magic, naïve and critical?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1047" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251663360'" from="54pt,4.35pt" to="180pt,4.35pt"><v:line id="_x0000_s1048" style="'position:absolute;" from="54pt,4.35pt" to="54pt,22.35pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1049" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" from="180pt,4.35pt" to="180pt,22.35pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td height="5" width="66"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><br /></td> <td><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1047 _x0000_s1048 _x0000_s1049" height="27" width="180" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1051" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251667456'" from="441pt,6.65pt" to="477pt,6.65pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251667456; left: 0px; margin-left: 587px; margin-top: 2px; width: 51px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1051" height="12" width="51" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1050" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:251666432'" from="234pt,6.65pt" to="270pt,6.65pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251666432; left: 0px; margin-left: 311px; margin-top: 2px; width: 51px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/joy/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1050" height="12" width="51" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""> </span>Critical level<span style=""> </span>Magic or Naïve Level <span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>increase the level of consciousness </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The above first four stages or steps are the basic steps to make the community to attain the required capacity to identify, analyse and under stand the needs and problems of the community.<span style=""> </span>This could be otherwise called as <b>assessment of needs and problems</b> of the community.<span style=""> </span>Community organizer has to know about the needs and problems at the same time he has to enable the people to make an assessment of the needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>In order to do this process the community has to come forward to realize and express for further action or response individually or collectively.<span style=""> </span>In this process the people get empowered by way of acquiring the skills of analysis and raising the levels of consciousness. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="5" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>List the problems</b> – all the identified needs and problems of the community are listed by the community with the help of the community organizer.<span style=""> </span>This is a process which makes the people to understand their own situation.<span style=""> </span>Realization of the needs and problems will bring awareness about their own situation. The involvement of the community in identifying the various needs and problems will increase the participation of the people.<span style=""> </span>The problems in different settings are likely to differ and hence accordingly the identified problems are listed.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="6" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Give priorities</b> – all the needs and problems cannot be considered together for further action.<span style=""> </span>Therefore all the needs and problems are analysed for its severity, magnitude, symptoms and causes based on which they are ordered and priority is given to all the needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>The community after having identified the needs and problems analysis them and give priority by which they have to be taken up for further actions.<span style=""> </span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="7" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Select a problem</b> – from the priority list most urgent problem which needs to be taken up immediately is selected. All the problems cannot be approached simultaneously there fore there is need for selecting any one problem and initiate further action.<span style=""> </span>Based on the order of priority the first in the list is taken up for working out solutions.<span style=""> </span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="8" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Redefine the problem</b> – the selected problem is redefined for better understanding by the community.<span style=""> </span>For better planning the problem has to be analysed and defined before taking any further step in addressing the problem.<span style=""> </span>Many times one may look at a phenomenon as a problem by its appearance or at the peripheral level instead it has to be further analysed is it a real problem.<span style=""> </span>Does it affect the normal functioning of the community?<span style=""> </span>How many people are being affected? How are they affected? If nothing is does towards this how it will disturb the community?<span style=""> </span>These are all some of the questions by which we can easily analyse and understand to redefine the problem. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="9" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Formulate achievable objective</b> – the redefined problem is converted into achievable objectives which will be considered for further action.<span style=""> </span>At times the objectives have to be split into many parts so that they could be converted in to programmes and activities towards fulfilling the needs and problem.<span style=""> </span>Let us assume that illiteracy is a problem in a community.<span style=""> </span>It is further analysed that majority of the people of the locality have not gone to school at their childhood days.<span style=""> </span>One of the reasons for that was that there was no school in their locality.<span style=""> </span>At present a school has been constructed and teachers are appointed.<span style=""> </span>Now non availability of the school is not the reason for illiteracy.<span style=""> </span>It is further analysed and found that the children are not sent to the school.<span style=""> </span>Though there were many children at the school going age the parents do not send them to the school because the teachers are not regular on one hand and on the other when the teachers are present they do not teach the children.<span style=""> </span>In this situation the general problem externally appears to be illiteracy but its root cause is the defective function of the school.<span style=""> </span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="10" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Work out the alternatives</b> – based on the objectives the different ways and means are found out by the community through brain storming.<span style=""> </span>One should not be content with a problem with one solution because it will limit the practice of community organization.<span style=""> </span>In order to solve the selected problem the community has to generate maximum number of alternatives to address the problem. Let us take the problem of illiteracy as stated in the previous stage.<span style=""> </span>How do we solve the problem?<span style=""> </span>The problem is directly related to the defective functioning of the school.<span style=""> </span>What are the different ways to solve this?<span style=""> </span>The concerned teachers can be met and advised.<span style=""> </span>The defective functioning can be brought to the notice of the higher authorities.<span style=""> </span>The higher authorities can be met by the representatives with a written representation. Motivate more children to join the school.<span style=""> </span>With draw all the children from the school.<span style=""> </span>Close the school.<span style=""> </span>Organize a protest march.<span style=""> </span>Organize a hunger strike.<span style=""> </span>There could be many such alternatives could be generated in tacking any problem.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="11" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Select an appropriate alternative</b> – among the proposed alternatives one of the best alternatives is selected for tackling the selected problem.<span style=""> </span>To solve a problem there could be many ways but there may be one best and suitable way or method by which the problem could be easily solved.<span style=""> </span>Such options should be selected. <span style=""> </span>While selecting an alternative one has to start with softer approach and in a sequence.<span style=""> </span>If the lower level approach fails apply the next one and even that one fails then select the next one and nothing works out finally we may resort to social action methods and may be at times we may have to resort to strong measures. </li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="12" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Work out a plan of action</b> – in order to materialize the selected alternative an action plan is proposed in which the responsibilities are assigned and tentative organization is structured.<span style=""> </span>The time frame, resources needed and personnel involved are decided at this stage.<span style=""> </span>Supposing to solve the illiteracy problem of a community it is decided to meet the authorities to present a petition.<span style=""> </span>This has to be discussed at length to decide about the date, time, who, how many, where etc.<span style=""> </span>At the time of meeting the authorities who is to speak? What to speak? How to speak?<span style=""> </span>All these things have to be decided and role played so that it is done in a perfect manner and brings the desired results.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="13" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Mobilization of resources </b>– to implement the plan of action the required resources is assessed, identified and mobilized.<span style=""> </span>The resources may be in terms of time, money, man power and material.<span style=""> </span>An estimate is made and the sources are identified for mobilizing the resources.<span style=""> </span>Many times man power resources alone may help to arrive at a solution.<span style=""> </span>Therefore the community has to have a thorough understanding by which people by themselves may come forward to include themselves for further action.<span style=""> </span>Apart from this any other resources have to be mobilized internally and if it is not possible then we have to think about it from external sources.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="14" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Implement the plan of action</b> – after having made a plan of action along with the resources the plan is implemented.<span style=""> </span>The implementation takes care of the time and resources towards fulfilling the fixed goals. While implementing the plan of action the involvement of the people and their active participation by accepting the responsibilities has to be ensured.<span style=""> </span>The people have to be prepared and guided to become a partner in the problem solving approach.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="15" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Evaluate the action</b> – the implemented plan is evaluated to find out the success and deviancy of the action from the objectives.<span style=""> </span>Any deviancy or any undesired results are identified and the reasons for the deviancy are discussed.<span style=""> </span>The positive and desired results are to be appreciated.<span style=""> </span>The evaluation can be made as one of the components of working with the community.<span style=""> </span>It could be organized either at periodical level or at the end of the activity either within the organization by the organization personnel or by an outsider or by an expert.<span style=""> </span>The task is not complete unless the evaluation is completed.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="16" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Modification</b> – based on the evaluation the modification needed is decided and introduced.<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>In order to bring a permanent solution to the selected problem it is being addressed with the modifications.<span style=""> </span>These modifications are proposed in order to settle the problem permanently.<span style=""> </span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="17" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Continuation </b>– the modified action plan is implemented and continued.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="18" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Select the next problem</b> – once the selected need is fulfilled the next problem is selected from the priority list.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress III</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">1. Describe the steps involved in community organization.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMMUNITY ORGANIZER<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;">1.4.1<span style=""> </span><b>Characteristics of a Good Organizer<o:p></o:p></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Curiosity</b> – the function of an organizer is to raise questions that agitate, that break through the accepted pattern.<span style=""> </span>He goes forth with the questions and suspects that there are no answers but only further questions.<span style=""> </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Irreverence</b> – Curiosity and irreverence go together.<span style=""> </span>He is challenging, insulting, agitating, discrediting.<span style=""> </span>He stirs unrest.<span style=""> </span>In other words creating the discontentment among the people by high lighting the situation or making the people to understand the situation.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Imagination</b> – To the organizer, imagination is not only a mental creation but something deeper.<span style=""> </span>It ignites and feeds the force that drives him to organize for change.<span style=""> </span>To realistically appraise and anticipate the probable reactions of the resisting forces, he must be able to identify with them too, in his imagination and foresee their reactions to his action.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>A Sense of Humour</b> – Humour is essential to successful tactician, for the most potent weapons known to mankind are satire and ridicule.<span style=""> </span>It enables him to maintain his perspective and see himself for what he really is.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>An organized personality</b> – He should be able to accept and work with irrationalities for the purpose of change.<span style=""> </span>He should recognize that each person or community has a hierarchy of values.<span style=""> </span>He must become sensitive to every thing that is happening around him.<span style=""> </span>He is always learning and every incident teaches him something.<span style=""> </span>He must also accept without fear or worry that the odds are always against him and be prepared for that.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Free and Open Mind</b> – He must have a flexible personality, not a rigid structure that breaks down when something unexpected happens.<span style=""> </span>The organizer while working with the community does not have any hidden agenda or pre conceived ideas.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Discerning and Critical Eye</b> – the organizer should be able to look at the situation and differentiate it critically.<span style=""> </span>Any situation has to be viewed through the eyes of the people carefully and find out its magnitude, symptoms and causes.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>Receptive Ear</b> – the organizer has to be a good and an attentive listener, listening to the people and to their problem.<span style=""> </span>The organizer while working with the community has to be person having patient listening and does not be person commanding over the people.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 12pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The difference between a leader and an organizer is – the leader goes on to build power to fulfill his desires to hold and wield the power for purposes both social and personal.<span style=""> </span>He wants power to himself.<span style=""> </span>The organizer finds his goal in creation of power for others to use.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.4.2<span style=""> </span><b>Skills of an Effective Community Organizer</b> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Problem Analysis – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">One of the<b> </b>major tasks of the community organizer is to assist the people in arriving at a solution to the problem. The organizer is capable of identifying the problem and making the people to identify, analyse, give priorities, select an appropriate priority, mobilize resources, make a plan of action, implement, monitor, evaluate, modify and continue.<b><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Resource Mobilization</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"> – Any problem of the community while working out the solution requires resources.<span style=""> </span>The resources may be in terms man power, money material and time. On one hand the organizer is aware of the availability of the resources within the community or outside the community and on the other makes the people to identify the sources of resources and the way to tap such resources.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Conflict Resolution – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Problems of the community involves the affected people by the problem and the others who are the causes for the problem.<span style=""> </span>Therefore there could be a conflict between these two groups or between the people and the system.<span style=""> </span>The organizer is equipped with the skill of identifying the conflicting situation and making the people to understand the conflict the work out the ways and means to find solutions to the conflict. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Organizing Meeting – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Communication within the community and between the community and the organizer is inevitable.<span style=""> </span>There needs to be transparency in the dealings for which formal and informal meetings have to be organized and information have to be shared. The sharing of information enables sharing of responsibility and decision making.<span style=""> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Writing Reports – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">documentation<b> </b>of the events for future reference and follow up is absolutely essential.<span style=""> </span>Any communication or any written representation and the report of the dealings have to be recorded.<span style=""> </span>This task is either done by the community organizer or delegate the task to some one else for this purpose.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Networking – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">in a community while working with the people the participation of the people strengthens or increases the power of the people.<span style=""> </span>At times support from like minded people or organization has to elicit so that a pressure is built against the oppressive force and to create pressure and increase the bargaining power for which networking with other people and organization is done by the community organizer.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">Training – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">capacity building of the people and the personnel of an organization is important while working with the community.<span style=""> </span>In the process of capacity building the community organizer has to be a good trainer.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer has to use his training ability and skills in this regard.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress II</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">1. Describe skills of a Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b>1.5 ROLES COMMUNIYT ORGANIZER</b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Community organizer having the required characteristics and skills and the knowledge about the process and steps of community organization will be able to apply the same in different settings by appropriate roles.<span style=""> </span>The different roles of a community organizer are discussed here.<span style=""> </span>These roles are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Communicator</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer transfers or transmits information, thought, knowledge etc. to the members of the community.<span style=""> </span>Sharing of information enables the community to be better prepared and empowered with information.<span style=""> </span>The communication between the organizer and the community and within the community is essential.<span style=""> </span>The people have to be prepared and known about the various effects of consequences of the community organization process.<span style=""> </span>The communication takes place by individual contact, group meetings, group discussions, public meetings etc.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">At times the community organizer takes an upper hand and considers that the people are illiterate and ignorant and hence the dealings with the people become a master slave relationship.<span style=""> </span>In order to avoid any such undesired relationship the community organizer has transparency and communicates with the people.<span style=""> </span>The communication enables better interaction which leads to a healthy relationship and cooperation for further action and response. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The community organizer in order to disseminate the information to the people can use different techniques like skit, role plays, street plays and audio and vides shows. The organizer can train the people in all these communicative techniques.<span style=""> </span>This will be more effective if he is able to organize the small children and train them in this regard.<span style=""> </span>The children are an effective communicative channel and a fast reaching channel.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The local groups like women’s group, youth groups are other channels for communication.<span style=""> </span>By giving the responsibility to such groups to communicate to all other members in the community will also be helpful in reaching out the whole community.<span style=""> </span>There should not be any secrecy or suppression of information which would only create undesired results. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Enabler – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;">the community organizer facilitates the process in the community for a change.<span style=""> </span>He does not carry out any work by himself but he enables the community to do the work.<span style=""> </span>The organizer gives importance to the process than the product.<span style=""> </span>Therefore the people learn the process rather than worried about the results and consequences of the process.<span style=""> </span>By the role of enabler the organizer would create independency among the people by which avoid the dependency syndrome. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The community organizer is present with the people and encourages and gives different directions so that the people are able to decide what they would like to do and how they would like to do.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer only initiates the process and people have to follow and at the time of difficulties they refer back to the community organizer.<span style=""> </span>There fore the role of the community organizer is to make the people to understand the process and to stand on their own. <span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Animator – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;">in any process of community organization the organizer encourages, provides direction and guide lines to proceed in carrying out the different activities.<span style=""> </span>The people because of their culture always depend on others and do not want to decide anything on their own.<span style=""> </span>In such situation the organizer as an animator makes the people to come forward and take active participation.<span style=""> </span>Any further corrections or modifications in the works of the community are being done by the animator.<span style=""> </span>The animator plays a vital role in eliciting the active participation of the people from planning till evaluation especially ensuring life in all the dealings of the issues and problems.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The people in general do not want to take any risk and at tines they do not even want to do anything for common good.<span style=""> </span>One of the reasons could be that the people have the attitude of culture of poverty or culture of silence.<span style=""> </span>This could be changed by the community organizer by pricking or tickling the conscience of the people through raising questions.<span style=""> </span>This would further enable them increase their level of consciousness. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Guide – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;">the community organizer instead of doing anything on his own guides the members of the community in the process of community organization.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer is not a person to shoulder the responsibility or solving problems of the people.<span style=""> </span>Instead he has to make the people to respond for which the organizer provides the various avenues and shows different roots while dealing with the community problems.<span style=""> </span>As a guide the organizer provides the needed information.<span style=""> </span>He has to be a person with lots of information and ideas.<span style=""> </span>For example in a community there are many educated unemployed youth and their presence in the community is considered to be more of nuisance than as a human resource.<span style=""> </span>In such a situation the community organizer should be able to provide information about the various employment opportunities, and different ways to become self employed, the terms and conditions for availing credit from the credit institutions etc.<span style=""> </span>have to be told to the youth.<span style=""> </span>Once the community organizer is able to provide information which is useful to the people the youth from the neighbouring youth may also approach in getting some guidance from the community organizer.<span style=""> </span>This would surely fetch credit to the community organizer as well as gains the good will of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Counselor</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer understands the community and enables the community to understand itself.<span style=""> </span>At the time of difficulty the individuals or the groups are given the required counseling to proceed in the correct direction.<span style=""> </span>One of the very basic dimensions of counseling is to be a patient listener.<span style=""> </span>Usually every one likes others to listen to them and hesitate to listen to others.<span style=""> </span>Moreover as a counselor he has to step into the shoes of others, understand and respond.<span style=""> </span>People when they are in need there should be some one to listen to them.<span style=""> </span>When people approach there should be some one to attend to.<span style=""> </span>In all such situations the community organizer can easily step in as a counselor in helping the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Collaborator</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer joins hands in performing his task with his colleagues with other like minded people and organizations.<span style=""> </span>The organizer has to have interpersonal relationship and public relation skills.<span style=""> </span>Nowadays organizations approach a problem not with their personal capacity they also depend on the neighbouring organization.<span style=""> </span>Similarly other organizations may also look for the cooperation and collaboration of different organization.<span style=""> </span>There are also organization working towards a similar problem where in a collaborative effort will strengthen both the organization.<span style=""> </span>Therefore the role of collaborator is very much needed for net working of similar and like minded organizations and efforts for a common cause.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Consultant</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer enjoys the confidence of the people and advises them in matters of vital interest. The community organizer becomes a person with lots of knowledge and information which is being shared with the people. As a consultant the community organizer makes himself available to the people who are in need because the community organizer has lots of information and expertise which could be availed by those who are in need of it.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer instead of working in the filed in one area will be able to contribute his expertise with many individuals and groups by performing the role of a consultant. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Innovator</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer innovates, performs, and improves the techniques, content in the process of community organization.<span style=""> </span>This gives a lead to the people of the community and enables them to try out new ways and means to find solutions to the needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>The community organization should not be merely for solving problem alone.<span style=""> </span>On the other hand it has to be in the areas of capacity building of the individuals and community where the organizer can be an innovator by introducing new things to improve the capacity of the people.<span style=""> </span>Community organizer is not a person to maintain the system that exists but he should be a person to introduced new ways and means to climb up the development ladder. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Model</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer commands perfection as a community organizer and serves as a source of inspiration.<span style=""> </span>The role of the organizer is to become an example while working with the people.<span style=""> </span>This should further become as a model which could be applied in other areas with similar problems.<span style=""> </span>By proper planning in approaching a problem and execution of the plan and documenting the whole process will be of greater help to others.<span style=""> </span>The problem solving process becomes a model to others.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Motivator</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the community organizer stimulates and sustains active interest among the people for reaching a solution to the needs and problems. The community organizer encourages the community to take up a minor task and complete it successfully which would enable the people to take up difficult task.<span style=""> </span>In such a process the people at times may not take up any initiative or content to live with the existing situation.<span style=""> </span>Therefore the organizer motivates the people by making them to observe, analyse, understand and respond to the situation.<span style=""> </span>When people are discouraged because they were not able to achieve what they wanted or there is resistance and opposition in such situations the organizer plays the role of a motivator.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Catalyst – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;">in the<b> </b>process of community organization the community organizer retains his identity at the same time enables the people to be empowered.<span style=""> </span>The people gain accessibility and control over resources and acquire skills in decision making. <span style=""> </span>The community organizer accelerates the actions and reactions so that people are able to achieve the desired results.<span style=""> </span>As a catalyst the organizer is able to increase the response level of the people.<span style=""> </span>The catalyst role further enables the people to become independent and become expert in responding to their own needs.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Advocate –</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> the role of the advocate is to be a representative or persuade the members of the community and prepare them to be a representative as well as represent the issues to the concerned body to bring a solution to the unmet needs.<span style=""> </span>The advocacy role is an important role to the present context.<span style=""> </span>The needs and problems of the people have to be represented and the required support and networking is essential to increase the pressure on the oppressive forces. </span>In the role of advocate the community organizer champions the rights of others.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer speaks on behalf of the community when community is unable to do so, or when community speaks and no one listens.<span style=""> </span>The advocate represents the interests of the community to gain access or services or improve the quality of services which may be hampered by other forces. <span style=""> </span>An advocate argues, debates, bargains, negotiates, and confronts the environment on behalf of the community. <span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="">Facilitator – </span></b>the community organizer helps the community to articulate their needs, clarify and identify their problems, explore resolution strategies, select and apply intervention strategies, and develop their capacities to deal with their own problems more effectively. A facilitator provides support, encouragement, and suggestions to the community so that they may proceed more easily and successfully in completing tasks or problem solving. A facilitator assists the community to find coping strategies, strengths and resources to produce changes necessary for accomplishing goals and objectives. A facilitator helps client systems alter their environment.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style=""> </span>Mediator – </b>the community organizer intervenes in disputes between parties to help them find compromises, reconcile differences, or reach mutually satisfying agreements.<span style=""> </span>The mediator takes a neutral stance between the involved parties.<span style=""> </span>A mediator is involved in resolving disputes between members of the between the community and other persons or the broader environment.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="">Educator – </span></b><span style="">the community organizer as e</span>ducator conveys information to the community and the broader environment.<span style=""> </span>Organizer provides information necessary for coping with problem situations, assists the community in practicing new behaviors or skills, and teaches through modeling.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer provides information necessary for decision making.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Community organization is a macro method in social work.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer with the required qualities and skills will be able to work with the people.<span style=""> </span>While working with the people of different background or from different geographical set up the different roles can be applied.<span style=""> </span>All the roles need not be or cannot be applied in all the settings to all the problems.<span style=""> </span>Moreover there is no one role which is superior or inferior and while dealing with any problem the organizer has to use more than one role.<span style=""> </span>Therefore depending upon the situation and the needs and problems of the community appropriate role has to be applied.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress IV</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Describe the different roles of a Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></b></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">……………………………………………………………………………………………………<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.6 LET US SUM UP<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">This unit has described the settings in which community organization can be applied, skills and characteristics of a community organizer.<span style=""> </span>The community organization process involves the role of the community where the community takes the initiative in identifying, analyzing, selecting the different needs and problems of the community.<span style=""> </span>The community also identifies the needed resources and works out the plan of action, implements, evaluates and continues with the next priority of needs.<span style=""> </span>In the process of community organization the organizer plays different roles like communicator, counseller, consultant, motivator, innovator, guide, advocate etc. in different settings depending on the situation and needs and problems.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.7 KEY WORDS<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Levels of Consciousness – </span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;">it is the<b> </b>understanding of the people about the socio economic status of the people.<span style=""> </span>There are three levels of consciousness namely magic, naïve and critical level.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Magic level of Consciousness</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – it is the basic belief in fatalism and justify the status of the person as due to the fate or God’s creation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Naïve level of Consciousness</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – people believe that it is due to lack of facilities because of which they are being exploited.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Critical level of Consciousness</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – the people understand that due to dependency, inequality and exploitation their status remain as poor. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">Empowerment</span></b><span style="line-height: 150%;"> – it is the access and control over self, ideology, resources and decision making.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.8 MODEL ANSWERS<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress I</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Describe skills of a Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">To work with the community the organizer has to be equipped with lots of skills to deal with the problem on one hand to work with the members of the community. The skill revolves around bridging the gap between the needs and resources.<span style=""> </span>There fore the community organizer has to equip with the skills of problem solving, resource mobilizing, planning and implementation and evaluation.<span style=""> </span>At the each level the orgazniser has to elicit the participation and cooperation of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress II</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">1. Describe the steps involved in community organization.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Community organization basically involves in preparing the people to identify their own problem, analyse the problem for its magnitude, symptoms and causes.<span style=""> </span>From the problems identified one of the problems is selected based on its severity and urgency.<span style=""> </span>The different ways and means are generated and most appropriate alternative is selected.<span style=""> </span>The needed resources are identified and mobilized.<span style=""> </span>An action is planned to achieve the objectives.<span style=""> </span>This plan is implemented, monitored and evaluated.<span style=""> </span>Based on the evaluation modifications are made if necessary for further action and continued.<span style=""> </span>If the desired plan has been completed the next problem from the priority list is selected for action. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">Check Your Progress III</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;">1. Describe the different roles of a Community Organizer<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%; color: red;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%; color: black;">The community organizer has many roles and functions depending upon situation, community and the needs and problems.<span style=""> </span>The roles are as communicator conveys the information, as an enabler, motivator increases the capacity of the community to work towards achieving the goals.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer also acts as a catalyst, consultant and counselor where in he is a source of information and encourages the people to respond to the situation.<span style=""> </span>The community organizer as an innovator suggests new ways and different ways towards the well being of the community.<span style=""> </span>Advocacy is another role where either the organizer represents the community or encourages the community to represent the community whenever needed.<span style=""> </span>The organizer acts neither as a guide nor as a person to dictate or command or demand the members of the community.<span style=""> </span>The organizer has to be a friend, philosopher and guide so that the community is guided and provided with the needed information and enables them to unite their strength and understand their own problem and work out the alternatives in finding solution to the needs and problems.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <div style="border-style: solid none; border-color: windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt medium; padding: 1pt 0in;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="border: medium none ; padding: 0in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;">1.9 FURTHER <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">READINGS</st1:place></st1:City><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in;"><b><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></b><span style="">Cox, F.M., et.al. 1987 (Fourth Editions)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Strategies of Community Organization.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Illinois</st1:place></st1:State> : Peacock Publishers.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="">Gangrade, K.D. 1971.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="">Community Organization in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Bombay</span></st1:place></st1:City><span style=""> : Prakashan.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Kramer, Ralph M & Harry Specht. 1975.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Readings</st1:place></st1:City> in Community Organization Practice.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">New Jersey</span></st1:place></st1:State><span style=""> : Printice Hall Inc.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="">Ross, M.G. 1955.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="">Community Organization.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; text-indent: 0.5in;"><st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">New York</span></st1:place></st1:State><span style=""> : Harper and Row Publishers.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; color: black;">BSWE - 03</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">BLOCK 1 : COMMUNITY ORGANISATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">UNIT - 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">COMMUNITY ORGANISATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: center; line-height: 16pt;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Contents</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.0<span style=""> </span>Objective<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.1<span style=""> </span>Introduction <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.2<span style=""> </span>Definition of community organisation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.3<span style=""> </span>Principles of community organisation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.4<span style=""> </span>Values and ethics of community organisation practice<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.5<span style=""> </span>Location of community work within social work<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.6<span style=""> </span>Concept of community analysis structure and function.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.7<span style=""> </span>Let us sum up<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.8<span style=""> </span>Key words<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.9<span style=""> </span>Model Answers<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.10<span style=""> </span>Further Readings<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.0<span style=""> </span>OBJECTIVE</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>This unit will present to you a general introduction about Community organisation. After completing this unit, you will be able to understand-<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) The nature of community organisation,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Definition of community organisation,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Principles of community organisation,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iv) Values and ethics of community practice,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(v) Location of community work within social work,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vi) Concept of community analysis structure and function.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.1<span style=""> </span>INTRODUCTION</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Social work profession has three main methods i.e. (i) Cash work, (ii) Group work and (iii) Community organisation to achieve<span style=""> </span>its goal. Community organisation covers largest mumber of clients at a time to solve their socio economic or Psychosomatic problems. Social work methods are well adopted in practice in America and England and in some other developed countries but comparatinely they are still in their infancy in developing and underdeveloped countries. Efforts have been made to provide services through launching various community awareness and development programs in these countries but still much needs to be done. In this unit we shall make effort to define community organisation and decribe<span style=""> </span>in brief other introductory characteristics of components of community organisation enabling you to understand<span style=""> </span>the fundamental aspects and contents related with this method of social work. We will include in this<span style=""> </span>unit, apart from various definitions of community organisation, principles of community organisation, values and ethics of community organisation practice, location of community work within social work and<span style=""> </span>concept of community analysis : structure and function.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.2<span style=""> </span>DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>There are various definitions of community organisation given by different distinguished authors, practitioners and organisations. All definitions core contents are more or less similar except slight difference emphasis on one or other content. Here we will go through some of t he popular and well accepted definitions of community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>EDUARD C. LINDEMAN in 1921</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">1</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>defined community organisation as “Community organisation is that phase of social organisation which constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a community to control its affairs democratically and to secure the highest services from its specialists, organisations, agencies and institutions by means of recognised inter relations.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>WALTER W. PETTIT in 1925</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">2</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>defined it as “Community organisatin is perhaps best defined as assisting a group of people to recognise their common needs and helping them to meet these needs.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>RUSSELL H. KURTZ in 1940 defined it as “Community organisation is a process dealing primarily with program relationships and thus to be distinguished in its social work setting from those other basic processes, casework and groupwork, which deal with people. Those relationships of agency to agency, of agency to<span style=""> </span>community and of community to agency reach in all directions from any focal point in the social work picture. Community organisation may be thought of as the process by which these relationships are initiated,<span style=""> </span>altered or terminated to meet changing conditions, and it is thus<span style=""> </span>basic to all social work...”.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>WAYNE MCMILLEN in 1947</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">3</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>defined it as “Community organisation in its generic sense in deliberately directed effort to assist groups in attaining unity of purpose and action. It is practiced, though often without recognition of its character, wherever the objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of the talents and resources of two or more groups in behalf of either general or specific objectives.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>C.F. MCNEIL in<span style=""> </span>1954</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">4</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>defined it as “Community organisation for social welfare is the process by which the people of community, as individual citizens or as representatives of groups,<span style=""> </span>join together to determine social welfare needs, paln ways <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1. The community, New York, Association Press 1921, pp. 139, 173.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">2. “Some prognostications in the field of Community work”. Proceedings, National conference of social work, Denver, 1925, Chicago : University of Chicago Press 1925, p. 682.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">3. “Community organisation in Social work, S.W.Y.B. 1947, N.Y.R.S. Foundation, 1947, p. 110.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">4. Community organisation for social welfare, S.W.Y.B. 1954, Y.N. A.A.S.W. 1954, p. 21.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">of meeting then and mobilise the necessary resource. The focus of effort may be a functional field of social welfare, for example leisure time and recreation, or geographical area such as a neighbourhood, city or county.” <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>MURRAY<span style=""> </span>G. ROSS<span style=""> </span>in 1955</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">1</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>defined community organisation as “A process by which community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at these needs or objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal with these needs or objectives takes action in respect to them and in so doing extends and develops co-operative and collabarative attitudes and practices in the community.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>UNITED NATIONS in 1955</span><span style="font-size: 6.5pt; position: relative; top: -3.5pt;">2</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>considered community organisation as complementary to community development. United Nations assumed that community development is operataive in underdeveloped communities and community organisation is operative in areas in where levels of living are relatively high and social services relatively well developed, but in where a greater degree of integration and community initiative is recognised as desirable.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Exploiting core contents of above giving popular definitions we may define community organisation as “A method of social work which helps the community to understand its needs and objectives, develop willingness and confidence to achieve them, exploring and utilising available and probable internal and<span style=""> </span>external resources in organised and<span style=""> </span>cooperative manner though valuntary or public agency.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Above definitions reveal salient features and nature of community organisation. Summerising them we may say that Community organisation helps people collectively living either in a particular geographical area or common in characteristics based on eithers pyschosomatic (i.e. age, sex or ability level etc.) or socio economic (i.e. racial differences, income, profession etc.) grounds beyond any geographical limit to solve their problems related with food, health, shelter, education, economy or development, communication, social security and legislation etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Community organisation is a problem solving and developmental process of social work and it is significantly more economic in terms of time and money than anyother process of social work i.e. case work or group work.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Community organisation method involves various different professionals for a common cause.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Planning, peoples’ participation, mass awareness, education, wilingness, democracy and regular monitoring and evaluation are essential components of community organisation method.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress I</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Give two definition of community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1. Community organisation : Theory and principles, N.Y. : Harper & Brothers 1955. p. 39.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">2. Principals of community development, social progress through community development 1955, N.Y. Harper E.B. and Dunham, p. 525.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) What are the essential components of community organisation ?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.3<span style=""> </span>PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Before using any method to solve people’s problem we must know the basic principles of that method in order to make the best use of it. Let us come across principles of community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Principles of Community organisation may be listed as-</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Community organisation is the means<span style=""> </span>not the aim,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Communities differ like individuals and groups,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Communities have the right of self determination like individuals and groups,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iv) Community need is the basis of organisation and community is the primary client in community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(v) Community welfare is more important than agency’s own interest in programme formulation,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vi)<span style=""> </span>Community organisation or agency’s structure should be simple as for as possible and<span style=""> </span>services should be a equally distributed among different sub groups of the community,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vii) There should be larger<span style=""> </span>representation of community in inter-agency network.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(viii) There should be balance between centralisation and decentralisation of right and duties of participants and functionaries and<span style=""> </span>communication gaps should be avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ix) Community welfare programme should be need based and as far as possible all groups to have impact of programmes should participate in the formulation, implementation and direction of programmes.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(x) Valuntary cooperation is the key of effective community organisation. Agency must ensure representation, cooperation and coordination with neighbour agencies.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xi) Agency should appoint properly qualified and trained professional personnel to run activities and implement programmes effectively.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xii) Each agency should develop fundamental policies according to their own nature and should develop criterion for selection and regular monitoring and evaluation of programmes and activities.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xiii) Responsibility to carry on monitoring and evaluation should also be given to other agencies ready to take up and involve in such task.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xiv) Community organisation process accepts continuous changes in needs of individuals or groups and their dynamics.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xv) Aims and objectives of welfare for restructuring in accordance with required adjustment with the changing needs.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xvi) Formal and informal leaders accepted by and adjusted in subgroups of the community should be properly well accomodated in the organisation. Aims and functioning manner of the agency should be well accepted to the community and<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xvii) Actions of emotional references should be given due importance and place in the programme of the organisation and latent and manifested healthy feelings of the community should be well utilised.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xviii) Positive and effective communication should be developed within the organisation and between community and agency should assist and strenthen groups cooperating with them.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xix) Organisational functionality should always be flexible in decision making and<span style=""> </span>should enhance from time to time it’s velocity of functioning in accordance with circumstances of the community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xx) Agency should make effort<span style=""> </span>to develop effective leadership, and develop strength, stability harmony and honour within the community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress II</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) List any three principles focusing community role.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) List any three principles of community organisation focusing agency role.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>.................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.4<span style=""> </span>VALUES AND ETHICS OF COMMUNITY <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style=""> </span>ORGANISATION PRACTICE<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Now we would try to understand values and ethics of community organisation practice. Here we have to keep two things in mind. The first one is that the values and ethics of social work profession in general, and values and ethics of community organisation practice are, more or less, the same community organisation method is operative only within the broader frame work of social. The other thing is that the principles and values are very often so much interningled that it becomes very difficultl to seperate them values provide base for developing principles. Values direct our thinking and action towards socially accepted patterns.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Different social work thinkers and practioners have described social work values with different names and have put them under different categories. In this regard quite often Kohs, Herbet Bisno, Konopka, Friedlander, Goldsmith, Hoselitz, Hock, Frank, Green, Hobbes, Inkeles, Royce and Deutsch are being quoted. Here we will take up few significant values commonly applicable to community organisation practice <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) First of all we may take up the worth, dignity, integrily, selfrespect, qual opportunity and potentiality of members of the community. In community work these should be given due place and honour.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Next to this we may take up liberty and tolerance. Community should be given full liberty in decision making and in that process coming differences should be tolerated. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Constructive cooperation and coordination are essential for community work and these should be observed not only among individuals of the community but between all members, all agencies and<span style=""> </span>other influencing bodies and persons related with the community. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iv) Due place should be given to human stresses, motivations and learning in community work.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(v) Approach to community work should be democratic, welfare oriented and need based,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vi) Community organisation believes in individuals and social change and evolution alongwith their rigidity towards cultural demands,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vii) Each person, group or community is some what dependant on other and interdependence is essential for life and progress.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(viii) Individual is an indireate component of the society and it’s needs are specific and common both. Individual and society both have certain responsibility for each other. A community workers has to keep in mind these<span style=""> </span>facts and provide adedquate oppotunities for their<span style=""> </span>progress and development.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ix) Community organisation practice believes in confidetiality, social justice and modernisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>After becoming familiar with values of community organisation practice we should also be aware of ethicss of community organisation. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) The community organiser should maintain high standards of persosnal conduct<span style=""> </span>as a community worker. The community organiser should not participate in or be associated with dishonesty, fraud or misrepresentation. He should clearly distinguish between statements and actions made as a private individual and as a<span style=""> </span>representative of community work profession.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) The<span style=""> </span>community worker should make effort to become and remain competant in professional practice and<span style=""> </span>performance. He should accept responsibilities on the ground of existing proficiency and intention to acquire required competence. He should not misrepresent professional qualifications education and experience.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Community worker should regard the service obligation of the profession. He should retain responsibility for the quality of the service that one assumes, assigns or performs. He should act to prevent inhumane and dishonest practices against any individual, group or community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iv) The community worker should act in accordance with the high level<span style=""> </span>of professional impartiality and integrity. He should be alert and resist the pressures and influences that interfere with professional decision and judgement. He should not exploit professional relationships for personal gain.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(v) The community worker engaged in study and research should follow the updated methodss of inquiry. He should carefully consider its consequences for the community<span style=""> </span>and its members and as certain that the research evaluation or inquiry is valuntary and priorly known to them. It should also be kept in mind that information should be confidential and dignified. There should not be any harassment in case of refusal to participation. Community work researcher should also protect participants from physical or mental discomforts, stresses, harm, danger or deprivation. During evaluation work, he should discuss issues only for professional purposes and with persons directly and professionaly related with them. Community work researcher should take credit only for his actual research work and new findings.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vi) The community worker’s primary responsibility is community well being. He should serve his clientle with devotion, layality, determination and maximum feasible application of professional skill and competance. He should not exploit relationship for personal gain or use agency for private practice. Community worker’s practice should be indiscriminatory in respect of race, colour, sex, age, religion, nationality, marital, status, political belief, physical, mental<span style=""> </span>capability or any other characteristic, status or condition. He should avoid relationships or committments that contrary to the interest of the community. He should not involve himself in any sexual affair with the client. He should make accurate and complete information available to the community and should apprise community of its rights, risks, opportunities and obligations associated with the services for them. In the interest of the community he should seek advice and consultation with<span style=""> </span>colleagues and supervisors in the interest of the community. The community worker should terminate his services when they are no more required and it should be notified to the community in time and further action in relation to the community needs should be pointed out.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vii) The community worker should make or efforts to maximise self determination. The community worker should safegaurd the interest and rights of the community members and he should not<span style=""> </span>be engaged in any action violating or diminishing civil or legal rights of the persons related with his activities and programmes.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(viii) The community worker should take due care regarding maintenence and protection of confidentiality pertaining to the obtained informations, their recording, taping and permitting for other’s observation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ix) In case of setting fees for any service to the community. Community worker should ensure that they are reasonable, considerate and fair and in accordance with the ability to pay. He should not accept any thing for referral service.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(x) A community worker should treat colleagues with respect courtesy, faireness and good faith. He should cooperate with colleagues and seek arbitration when conflicts with colleagues require resolution.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xi) The community worker has the responisbility to relate with others with ful professional consideration. The worker to seves the client of colleagues during<span style=""> </span>their temporary should objence on emergency serve those client with the same consideration as that afforded to any client.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xii) The community worker should be responsible and abide himself<span style=""> </span>to the committments made to the employing organisation. He should work to improve policies procedures, efficiency and effectiveness of the services of employing agency. He should act to prevent and eliminate<span style=""> </span>discrimination in the employing organisaitons work and in its employment policies and practices.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xiii) Community worker should maintain integrity of the profession and should uphold and enhance the values, ethics, knowledge and mission of the profession. He should take action to proper channell against unethical conduct by any other member of the profession. He should also act to prevent the unauthorised and unqualified practice of community work.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xiv) The community worker should assist the profession in making social services available to the mass in general. He should spare time and professional expertise to activities that promote respect for the utility, the integrity and the competence of profession. He should support the formulation, development, anactment an implementation of social policies related to the profession. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xv) The community worker should take responsibility for identifying, developing and utilizing knowledge for professional practice of community work. He should critically examine the emerging knowlege relevant to community work and contribute to the knowledge base and share knowledge and practice with coworkdrs.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(xvi) The community worker should promote the general welfare of the community as well as the society. He should act to prevent and eliminate descrimination against any person or group on the basis of race or sex, religion or nationality age or marital status, political belief or personal characteristics or condition or status. He should be aware and ensure that all community members have adequate resources, services and opportunities they require. He should also act to expand<span style=""> </span>opportunity for disadvanated or oppressed groups and persons.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Check your progress III</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Describe in brief there values of community organisation<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Describe any three ethics of community organisaitons<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.5<span style=""> </span>LOCATION OF COMMUNITY WORK <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style=""> </span>WITHIN SOCIAL WORK</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>We know that social work profession has three main methods case work, group work and community work/organisation are the three main methods and social action, social research are the three ancillary methods. As we know social work profession came in practice round about world war and gradually developed to its present form. Community work/organisation term was first used in America befor the first world war and was included in social work<span style=""> </span>curriculam there as a subject in 1940. Community work begun in England with organisation charity to assist needy poor through settlement houses. It came in practice in third world contries for developmental programmes in the middle of 20th century and now being used as a well established professional method of helping people. It has achieved a fully recognised and well accepted status of a method of social work in social work curriculam as well as social work practice<span style=""> </span>in developed nation and under developed wherever social work is taught and practiced.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>The exact location of community work within social work is neither possible nor necessary to have a consensus as it depends on the need, demand, requirement, resource, facility, willingness, feasibility, circumstances and nature of the clientele to be served helped that which medhod of social work practice will suit most in that situation to solve the referred or diagnosed problem. History of<span style=""> </span>evolution of methods of social work locate community work at third place. First of all, case work came in practice and later to that community work came in practice but the energence of these three methods happended with slight timing differences and thus that may be treated as insignificant and may be ignored. In developed countries case work and after that group work methods are more popular and in wide practice but in developing and under developed countries of third world, community work is more prominent. An overall picture of social work profession and practice locates community, work organisation approximately in its middle position. It does not mean that in anyway it has less significance or importance to anyother method of social work, rather soldier and incorporate in addition, responsibility and task of other main methods of social work in manyways.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Check your progresss III</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Describe in few lines basis of location of community organisation in social work.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.6<span style=""> </span>CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY ANALYSIS : <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style=""> </span>STRUCTURE AND FUNCATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>It is a prerequisite to any profession to know the nature it’s client. In medical profession before prescribing medicine to the patient doctor has to know about the nature of the patient, his dieting preferences and willingness of intake of medicine etc. Before constructing a bridge on the river, the nature of it’s flow of water and highest level during flood should be priorly known to the engineer for preventive measures. To know<span style=""> </span>the nature of the clientale we analyse that in it’s various components having different traists. Becoming aware of different traits it becomes easy to formulate remedies for the clientate. The basis of the concept of community analysis is the same. To be successful in community organisation/work it is essential to analyse the community being adopted for help.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Community organisation<span style=""> </span>thinkers and practitioners have divided componentsof community in two categories i.e. (i) Horizontal and (ii) Vertical.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Horizontal components are structural and functional relationships between various social institution, systems and forces within the communities are structural<span style=""> </span>and functional relationships with out side the<span style=""> </span>community. Analysing various horizontal components of the community worker should to be into consideration (i) Background and Setting, (ii) History, Geography and (iii) Demography (iv) Transportation communication (v) Economic life (vi) Government, politics, Law enforcement (vii) Housing (viii) Education (ix) Recreation, (x) Religion, (xi) Health and Sanitation, (xii) Associations, Agencies and unions, (xiii) Ecology and environment and (xiv) Social institution like, caste, religion, family etc. The community should be aware the totall areas of the community, its origin evolution and development, location and cultural foundation, roads, lanes, traditional and modern means of transportation like bullock carts, tractors, various cycles, rickshaw, geeps etc. Population structure including total population and its age, sex, caste, race, ethnicity based distributions, facilities of<span style=""> </span>telephone, television, postal services, cinema, theatre, cellular phones, newspapers etc, occupations like agriculture, horticulture, fishery, dairy, animal husbandry, cottage industry and per capita income etc., facilities of development block, police<span style=""> </span>substation, political parties, leaders and institutions like village panchayat, nyaya panchayat, develoopment area committee, mandi samiti, school and tutorial coaching centres, vocational training centres, residential facilities, accomodations, night shelters, play grounds, clubs, playing materials, temples, worshipping places, hospitals, health centres, doctors, nurses, sanitation, drinking water, maximum, minimum and normal tempereture, rivers, wells, ponds, plantation, rainfalls, mountains, plateau, soil etc; labour unions, welfare and other agencies, living pattern and facilities social economic and political institutions, etc. Apart from these the worker should take into consideration the pattern and quality positive attitude, value and ethics related with assimilation, cooperation, initiation, leadership, interaction, response, willingness, acceptance, harmony, participation etc. and<span style=""> </span>negative attitudes like communal, racial or caste feeling destruction, apathy, political rewaley, class feeling and their interrelationship etc.; individuals groups, organisations and agencies within or outside the community having influence on the community to be helped through community work.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>To analyse vertical components of the community, a community organisor/worker should be aware of all those resources which influence the community and its functioning from outside the community. These resources may be either federal or state government and<span style=""> </span>their agencies, laws officials etc.<span style=""> </span>or International quasi governmental or voluntary agencies or organisations, their personnel, officers, laws, schemes, programmes etc. These resources may have influence or involvement in activities in a community considering that as their primary unit of operation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Whether the component is horizontal or vertical the community organiser/worker should know it’s collective structure and function both. They should be aware of setting of each component in it’s<span style=""> </span>particular special pattern with specific relation<span style=""> </span>to each other. They should also be familiar with functions of each and every component whether that is assisting, cooperating, assimilating, or disturbing, disintegrating or opposing to the community work. Keeping into consideration the above analytical elements in the beginning and planning for the community work, the worker may proceed smoothly and get adequate fruitful results. Community analysis helps mobilizing resources within and outside the community, utilising them in the best suitable way and strenghering harmonious relationship between individuals, groups, sub systems, agencies, personnel and officials etc. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress V</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Describe in brief horizontal components of community<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Describe in brief vertical components of community<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>..................................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.7<span style=""> </span>LET US SUM UP</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>There are various definitions of community organisation given by different authors, exploring core contents of popular definitions, we may define community organisation as a method of social work which<span style=""> </span>helps the community to understand its needs and objectives, develop willingness and confidence to<span style=""> </span>achieve them, exploring and<span style=""> </span>utilising available and probable internal and external resources in organised and cooperative manner through voluntary and public agency.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Some of the principles of community organisation are as listed below :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Community organisation is the means not the aim,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Communities have the right of self determination,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Community organisation or agencies structure should be simple,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iv) Community welfare programs should be need based,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(v) Valuntary cooperation is the key of effective community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vi) Community organisation process accepts continuous changes in needs of individual or group.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(vii) Objectives of the agency should be wide and flexible.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(viii) Positive and effective communication should be developed within the organisation and between community and agency.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ix) Agency should develop strength harmony and honour.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>The main values of community organisation are dignity, self<span style=""> </span>respect, equal opportunity, liberty, tolerence, democracy, constructive cooperation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>The ethics of community organisation are maintanance of high standard of personal conduct, competence in professinal practice, regard for profession, adoption of undated methods of enquiry and research, service with devotion and loyalty, maintenance and protection of confidentiality, colleagues respect, action for prevention and elimination of discrimination.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Exact location of community work within social work is neither possible nor necessary. History of evolution of methods of social work locate community work at third place. An overall picture of social work profession locates community work in its middle position. Authors have divided the nature of community in two categories i.e. (i) Horizontal and (ii) Vertical for community analysis. The horizontal nature includes structural and functional relationships of various social components and systems in the community. The vertical nature includes structured and functional relationships of its components of sources outside the community. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.8<span style=""> </span>KEY WORDS</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>Community :</i><span style=""> </span>A social group of any size whose members either resides in a specific locality, share government and have a historical and cultural heritage, or a big group of members with common<span style=""> </span>needs, profession or psychosomatic make or socioeconomic structure.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>Clientele :</i><span style=""> </span>Recipient of support and help i.e. community people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>Agency :</i><span style=""> </span>An organisation for the welfare and development of community people. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.9<span style=""> </span>MODEL ANSWERS</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress I</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>1. Give two definitions of community organisation.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) “Community organisation is a process by which community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at these needs or objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal with these needs or objectives, takes action in respect to them and in so doing extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes<span style=""> </span>and practices in the community.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) “Community organisation for social welfare is the process by which the people of community, as individual citizens or as representatives of groups,<span style=""> </span>join<span style=""> </span>together<span style=""> </span>to determine social welfare needs, plan ways of meeting them and mobilise the necessary resources. The focus of effort may be a functional feld of social<span style=""> </span>welfare, for example leisure time and recreation, or a geopraphical area such as a neighbourhood, city or county.”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>2. What are the essential<span style=""> </span>components of community organisation ?</i><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Planning, peoples participation, mass awareness, education, democracy, regular monitoring and evaluation and willingness are essential components of community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Check your progress II</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>1. List any three principles of community organisation focusing community role.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Communities have the right of self determination.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Voluntary cooperation is the<span style=""> </span>key to effective community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) There should be larger representation of community in inter-agency network.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>2. List any three principles of community organisation focusing agency role.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) Each agency should develop fundamental policies and criterion for selection and regular monitoring and evaluation of programs and activities.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Agency should make effort to develop leadership and strength, stability, harmony and honour within the community. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Aims and objectives of agency should be wide enough and program should be flexible for restructuring in accordance with required adjustment with the changing needs.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress III</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>1. Describe in brief three values of community organisation.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) In community work worth, dignity, integrity, self respect, equal opportunity and potentiality of members should be given due place and honour.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Community should be given full liberty in decision making and in that process coming up differences should be tolerated.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) Constructive cooperation and coordination are essential for community work and<span style=""> </span>these should be observed not only among individuals of the community but between all members, all agencies and other influencing bodies and persons related with the community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>2. Describe any three ethics of community organisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(i) The community organisation should maintain high standards of personal conduct as a community worker. He should not participate in or be associated with dishonesty, fraud or misrepresentation. He should clearly distinguish between statements a nd actions made as a private individual and as a representative of community work profession.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(ii) Community worker should regard the service obligation of the profession. He should retain responsibility for the quality of the service that one assumes, assign or performs. He should act to prevent<span style=""> </span>inhumane and discriminatory practices against any individual, group or community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(iii) He should serve his clilemtele with devotion, loyalty, determination and maximum feasible application of professional skill and competence. He should not exploit relationship for personal gain or use agency for private practice.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress IV</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>Describe in few lines basis of location of community organisation in social work.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>History of evolution of methods of social work locate community work at third place as first of all case work came in practice and then after that group work came in practice and later to that community work came in practice. In developed countries case work and then after that<span style=""> </span>group work methods are more popular and in wide practice but in developing and underdeveloped countries of third world community work is more prominent.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><b><i>Check your progress V</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span><i>1. Describe in brief horizontal components of community.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Horizontal components are structural and functional relationships between various social institutions, systems and forces within the community. These are related with background and setting, history, geography and demography, transportation and communication, economic life, government politics, law enforcement, housing, education, recreation, health and sanition, associations, agencies and unions, ecology and environment, social institutions like family, caste, race, religion etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>2. Describe in brief vertical components of community.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>The vertical components or resources of community are federal or state governments and their agencies, laws, officals etc.; quasi governmental or voluntary International agencies or organisations, their personnel, officers, laws, schemes and programms etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.10<span style=""> </span>FURTHER READINGS</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1.<span style=""> </span>Herbert J. Ruhim and Irene S. Ruhim 2001, Community organising and development, Allyn and Bacon, Massachusetts.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">2.<span style=""> </span>Roger Hadlye, Mike cooper and others, 1987, A Community social worker’s handbook, Tavistock publication, London.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">3.<span style=""> </span>M.G. Ross, 1955, Community organisation- Theory and practices, Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">4.<span style=""> </span>H.Y. Siddiqui, 1997, Working with communities, Hira Publications, New Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Writer</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style=""> </span>Prof. Girish Kumar</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style=""> </span>Former Dean<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style=""> </span>Faculty of Social Work</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="NO-BOK">M.G. Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi-221002<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="NO-BOK"><span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Resi. : A-12, Teacher’s Flat, <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>M.G. Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi-221001<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0.7pt 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>Phone : 2223156<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0.7pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">***</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com73tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-50476977296224842162008-01-25T07:57:00.000+04:302008-01-25T08:01:39.419+04:30classical conditioningMSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-2236694049672079032008-01-17T16:04:00.000+04:302008-01-17T17:29:15.838+04:30Greetings from Norway<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidN4GFSAWVbSABRjfyqR8mbbHZo9QQPkNyjdnreWSbVnsmwigWcmzHbR4AmqfFi6K5cwejG2f2eSAOk3mnhZqoHgAFbq0xmzE93El82ejXfaGyLB2XA3F_wDn8a_RFRJIAzDJrl37AXFc/s1600-h/IMG_3036.JPG"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidN4GFSAWVbSABRjfyqR8mbbHZo9QQPkNyjdnreWSbVnsmwigWcmzHbR4AmqfFi6K5cwejG2f2eSAOk3mnhZqoHgAFbq0xmzE93El82ejXfaGyLB2XA3F_wDn8a_RFRJIAzDJrl37AXFc/s400/IMG_3036.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5156428678217595362" border="0" /></a><br />Hi Dear all,<br /><br />Hope you are doing good. Thank you so much for the wishes. Feels good to see.<br /><br />I am doing good here and its pretty cold as you can make out and so much snow..<br /><br /><br />Good luck with mid semester exams coming up and make sure you ask your doubts in classes which is very important for exams.<br /><br />Ya, good luck with the survey on this saturday at the slum.<br /><br /><br /><br />Regards to all,MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-49051368029166218172008-01-16T18:41:00.000+04:302008-01-16T18:45:32.940+04:30happy journeyMSW DEPARTMENT AND STUDENTS OF MSW wishing jai kumar for happy journey.as faculty for xchange programme to norway...let his trip be prosporous n blissfull......MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-89074574814353032392008-01-08T18:08:00.001+04:302008-01-08T18:11:19.455+04:30Intelligence Notes<pre><center><img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /><b><span style="font-size:+3;">INTELLIGENCE</span><span style="font-size:+2;"><img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /><hr /></span></b></center></pre> <p><b>INTRODUCTION:</b> In 1917, as the United States mobilized its vast resources for the war against Germany, Professor Lewis Terman of Stanford University traveled east to meet with a group of prominent psychologists. Terman was an expert on intelligence testing, for he had pioneered the application of a French Intelligence test (developed by Alfred Binet) in the U.S. Terman, a devoted member of the Stanford University faculty, called his test the Stanford- Binet, and it was widely used in clinical settings.</p> <p>But why was Terman meeting with other psychologists? Their goal: to develop some kind of psychological test that the U.S. Army could give to the thousands of new recruits coming into the army. The test would help them decide who had the intellectual potential to be an officer, who did not. Terman carried in his briefcase the rough materials his student Arthur Otis had designed for a questionnaire measure of intelligence. In several weeks the group of psychologists had designed the Army Alpha Examination, based on the Otis scales. The test was given to 1,700,000 men, and it seemed to work. Some were sent off to the trenches, and others were selected to lead them there. And psychologists, delighted with their success, began to spread their testing into civilian settings: particularly in educational settings.</p> <blockquote> <p>School systems and colleges snatched up the tests for use in pupil classification, guidance, and admissions</p> <p>Within 30 months of the first publication of the group test some four million children had been tested, and the IQ test was on its way to acceptance</p> </blockquote> <hr align="left"> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">I. Intelligence Testing</span></p> <p><b>A. Historical Development</b></p> <p><b>1)</b> <b>Alfred Binet</b> Charged by the Minister of Public Instruction in Paris to develop a method of detecting "defective" children who could then be given special instructions</p> <p>Although he toyed with the idea of developing a physiological measure, he ended up with a test he called "aptitude for academic achievement"</p> <p>this test was designed to be relevant in academic settings</p> <p>Simple procedures used identified behaviors for each age (important - this test was age specific - also known as the "age-standard method"). This made it possible to establish range of normality ("norms"), then checked to see if the child/person possessed these abilities</p> <blockquote> <p><b>a)</b> 3 years: show eyes, nose, mouth, name objects in a picture, repeat figures, repeat a sentence of 6 syllables, give last name</p> <p><b>b)</b> 5 years: compare 2 boxes of different weights, copy a square, repeat a sentence of 10 syllables, put together 2 pieces of a game</p> <p><b>c)</b> 7 years: indicate omissions in drawings, copy a written sentence, copy a triangle and a diamond, etc.</p> <p><b>d)</b> 9 years: give the date complete, name days of the week, give definitions, memory</p> <blockquote> <p>this measure proved highly successful in predicting school success</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><b>2) In 1916</b>, an American psychologist (<b>TERMAN</b>) revised and translated the test</p> <blockquote> <p><b>a)</b> problem: unfair to say an 8 year old is more intelligent than a 6 year old simply because he or she gets more questions right</p> <p><b>b)</b> need to adjust for chronological age</p> <p><b>c) </b>He used the formula IQ = MA/CA X 100 (to get rid of decimals) - HOWEVER, this formula was actually developed by William Stern in 1912 in order to avoid the inconvenience of decimals.</p> <blockquote> <p>For example - A 10 year old with a mental age of 8 has a ratio of 8/10 = .8 and a 6 year old with a mental age of 4 has a ratio of 4/6 = .67. This indicates that the 6 year old is relatively farther behind his or her age peers.</p> <p>STERN then got rid of the decimal point so .8 becomes 80, and .67 becomes 67. d. if 100, just right. This would mean that a person has the same mental age and chronological age.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><b>B. Types of Tests</b></p> <p><b>1) Individual Tests</b></p> <blockquote> <p><b>a) Stanford-Binet:</b> This made it possible to test adults & children</p> <blockquote> <p><b>1.</b> established the procedures to use in administering the test - takes 1 hour or more so it was not good for collecting data from groups very quickly. This was not good if you wanted to test military troops - So, Otis instead created an oral intelligence test (goes back to introduction).</p> <p><b>2.</b> established the norms for the test (e.g., how many an "X" year old got correct) But, there is still a problem here. This test still utilized the intelligence quotient developed by Stern - but mental age slows dramatically after childhood. So, someone could go from gifted as a young person, to mentally challenged as an older adult without actually getting "less intelligent".</p> <p><b>Example: </b>a 15 year old female with a mental age of 20: 20/15 x 100 = 133, which would classify her as "gifted". Then, as an adult of age 40, let's say she retained the mental age of 20: 20/40 x 100 = 50. Now she would be classified as mentally retarded, yet she may be successful doctor. This problem was overcome by the introduction of the DEVIATION IQ, by Wechsler.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><b>3. Wechsler tests</b></p> <p>This scale compares a person's intelligence test scores with those of the mean scores of their age peers. Those who perform exactly the same as their age peers would receive the score of 100.</p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <p><b>a)</b> developed many tests, three very important: WISC (W Int. Scale for Children), the WAIS (W. adult int. scale), and the WPPSI (W preschool and primary scale of intelligence; good for ages 4-6 1/2)</p> <p><b>b)</b> attempted to bring in more behavioral measures rather than just verbal</p> <p><b>c)</b> two subsections: verbal subtests, performance subtests - verbal: information, comprehension, arithmetic, digit span, similarities, and vocabulary -performance: picture arrangement, picture completion, block design, etc.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p> </p> <p><b>C. Forms of Intelligence</b></p> <p><b>1)</b> <b>Basic approach:</b> verbal and math</p> <p><b>2) Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence</b></p> <p>Sternberg performed poorly on IQ tests as a child and suffered from severe test anxiety. Yet he was able to become a successful cognitive psychologist and a leader in the field of intelligence. This was a major influence in his belief that intelligence was much more than those abilities measured by traditional intelligence tests. He and colleagues wanted to know what the "lay person" though intelligence was so they interviewed many people. Most people indicated that intelligent people have good verbal skills, problem-solving skills, and social judgment.</p> <p>Thus, he developed the <b>Triarchic theory</b> which is comprised of the following:</p> <blockquote> <p><b>a) componential intelligence</b> - reflects our information-processing abilities. This is similar to traditional intelligence tests.</p> <p><b>b) experiential intelligenc</b>e - ability to combine different experiences in insightful ways to solve novel problems. Reflects creativity.</p> <p><b>c) contextual intelligence</b> - ability to function in practical, everyday social situations. Reflects "street smarts".</p> <blockquote> <p>Sternberg recognized that situations may call for one type or a combination of all three, and that each can be improved through training. D. IQ Controversies</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><b>3) Questions to consider</b></p> <p><b>a) What does the IQ Test Measure? Intelligence?</b></p> <p>e.g., the California Legislature has twice voted to prohibit group testing in schools on the grounds their effect is to limit the quality of education given to minority students. Many experts have gone on record as opposing IQ tests as invalid, easily altered by special coaching, and monopolizing the testing industry.</p> <p>Intelligence ----> IQ score Intelligence + Other Factors -----> IQ score</p> <p><b>b) Are IQ tests Valid (fair)?</b> -why is there a difference between groups on the IQ test?</p> <p><b>c) Is Intelligence Genetically determined Nurture Nature</b> -learning -instinct -experience -innate determinant -flexible -inflexible, wired in -acquired -genetic </p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-30814042723507661702008-01-08T18:07:00.001+04:302008-01-08T18:07:46.875+04:30Sensation and Perception Notes<center><a name="anchor514610"></a><span style="font-size:+2;">SENSATION & PERCEPTION</span><br /><span style="font-size:+2;">INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY</span> <hr /></center> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">When we smell a fragrant flower, are we experiencing a sensation or a perception? In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and "perception' are often used interchangeably. However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet complementary processes. In this section, we will discuss some concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and then move on to discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible in the scope of these notes to discuss all the senses).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">I. Sensations and Perceptions</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">Sensations</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">can be defined as</span> <b><i><span style="font-size:+1;">the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain.</span></i></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">Perception </span><span style="font-size:+1;">can be defined as <b><i>the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses.</i></b></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A) HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Sensation occurs:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Perception follows:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) the brain organizes the information and translates it into something meaningful.</span></p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B) But what does "meaningful" mean? How do we know what information is important and should be focused on?</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1)</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">Selective Attention</span><span style="font-size:+2;"> </span>- <span style="font-size:+1;">process of discriminating between what is important & is irrelevant (Seems redundant: selective-attention?), and is influenced by motivation.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - students in class should focus on what the teachers are saying and the overheads being presented. Students walking by the classroom may focus on people in the room, who is the teacher, etc., and not the same thing the students in the class.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2)</span><span style="font-size:+2;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">Perceptual Expectancy</span> - <span style="font-size:+1;">how we perceive the world is a function of our past experiences, culture, and biological makeup.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example, as an American, when I look at a highway, I expect to see cars, trucks, etc, NOT airplanes. But someone from a different country with different experiences and history may not have any idea what to expect and thus be surprised when they see cars go driving by.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Another example - you may look at a painting and not really understand the message the artist is trying to convey. But, if someone tells you about it, you might begin to see things in the painting that you were unable to see before.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">ALL OF THIS IS CALLED</span> <span style="font-size:+2;">Psychophysics</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C) Psychophysics can be defined as,<b> <i>the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience</i>.</b></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">In order to measure these events, psychologists use THRESHOLDS.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1)</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">Threshold -</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">a dividing line between what has detectable energy and what does not.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - many classrooms have automatic light sensors. When people have not been in a room for a while, the lights go out. However, once someone walks into the room, the lights go back on. For this to happen, the sensor has a threshold for motion that must be crossed before it turns the lights back on. So, dust floating in the room should not make the lights go on, but a person walking in should.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2)</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">Difference Threshold</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">-</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">the minimum amount of stimulus intensity change needed to produce a noticeable change.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a stimulus, the greater the change needed to produce a noticeable change.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example, when you pick up a 5 lb weight, and then a 10 pound weight, you can feel a big difference between the two. However, when you pick up 100 lbs, and then 105 lbs, it is much more difficult to feel the difference.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3)</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">Signal-Detection Theory</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">-</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">detection of a stimulus involves some decision making process as well as a sensory process. Additionally, both sensory and decision making processes are influenced by many more factors than just intensity.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Noise - how much outside interference exists.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Criterion - the level of assurance that you decide must be met before you take action. Involves higher mental processes. You set criterion based on expectations and consequences of inaccuracy.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - at a party, you order a pizza...you need to pay attention so that you will be able to detect the appropriate signal (doorbell), especially since there is a lot of noise at the party. But when you first order the pizza, you know it won't be there in 2 minutes, so you don't really pay attention for the doorbell. As the time for the pizza to arrive approaches, however, your criterion changes...you become more focused on the doorbell and less on extraneous noise.</span></p> </blockquote> </blockquote> </blockquote> <hr align="left"><span style="font-size:+2;">II.</span> <span style="font-size:+2;">SIGHT/VISION</span> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A) the visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length and amplitude:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) wave length</span><span style="font-size:+3;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">(also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs)</span><span style="font-size:+3;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">-</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">affects color perception (ex., red=approx 700, yellow approx 600)</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) wave amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave)</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">-</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">affects brightness perception.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B) Structure of The EYE:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Cornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to pass into the eye.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives information about light using rods and cones. The functioning of the retina is similar to the spinal cord - both act as a highway for information to travel on.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">4) Pupil - opening at the center of the iris which controls the amount of light entering the eye. Dilates and Constricts.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">5) Rods & Cones - many more rods (approximately 120 million) than cones (approx 6.4 million).</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) cones - visual receptor cells that are important in daylight vision and color vision.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">the cones work well in daylight, but not in dim lighting. This is why it is more difficult to see colors in low light.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">most are located in the center of the retina...called the FOVEA, which is a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains ONLY cones...visual acuity is best here.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">SO...when you need to focus on something you attempt to bring the image into the fovea.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) rods - visual receptor cells that are important for night vision and peripheral vision.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">the rods are better for night vision because they are much more sensitive than cones.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">in addition, the rods are better for peripheral vision because there are many more on the periphery of the retina. The cones are mostly in and around the fovea but decrease as you go out.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">to see best at night, look just above or below the object...this keeps the image on the rods.</span></p> </blockquote> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C) Seeing In Color - we can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Color Vision Theories:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Trichromatic Theory</span><span style="font-size:-1;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">-</span><span style="font-size:-1;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors (red, green, and blue) and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (Like a projection T.V.). The ratio of each each color to the other then determines the exact color that we see.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Opponent-Process Theory -</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs = red-green, blue-yellow, black- white (light-dark).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Note: Most every Introductory Psychology book has a demonstration on the Opponent-Process theory. Please look for the one in your book and give it a try.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">DOES COLOR EXIST? People just assume that because we see colors, that they actually exist in the world. In other words, that when they see the color red, that red is a real, physical, tangible, "thing". But is it, or is color just a matter of our perception? If we had different types of nervous systems, we would see things differently (literally) and so wouldn't we think those other things we saw were the real "things"? Let's examine this question of perception a bit further.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;"><hr align="left"></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">II) PERCEPTION</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Much of our understanding of how and why we perceive things comes from Gestalt Psychology</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - one of the most well known Gestalt principles is the Phi Phenomenon, which is the illusion of movement from presenting stimuli in rapid succession. When you see a cartoon or running Christmas lights, you see movement (although none actually exists) because of this principle.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A) Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) figure-ground - this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions. When we look at an object, we see that object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits. For example, when I see a picture of a friend, I see my friends face (figure) and the beautiful Sears brand backdrop behind my friend (ground).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) simplicity/pragnanz (good form) - we group elements that make a good form. However, the idea of "good form" is a little vague and subjective. Most psychologists think good form is what ever is easiest or most simple. For example, what do you see here: : > )</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">do you see a smiling face? There are simply 3 elements from my keyboard next to each other, but it is "easy" to organize the elements into a shape that we are familiar with.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are close to each other in physical space are often perceived as belonging together.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">4) similarity - do I really need to explain this one? As you probably guessed, this one states that objects that are similar are perceived as going together. For example, if I ask you to group the following objects: (* * # * # # #) into groups, you would probably place the asterisks and the pound signs into distinct groups.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">5) continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led. Dots in a smooth curve appear to go together more than jagged angles. This principle really gets at just how lazy humans are when it comes to perception.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">6) common fate - elements that move together tend to be grouped together. For example, when you see geese flying south for the winter, they often appear to be in a "V" shape.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">7) closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.</span></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B) Illusions - an incorrect perception caused by a distortion of visual sensations.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) <a href="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/s&p.html#Muller-Lyer%20explained">Muller-Luyer Illusion</a></span><a name="anchor451026"></a></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Reversible Figures - ambiguous sensory information that creates more than 1 good form. For example, the picture of two faces looking toward each other that is also a vase. I am sure most every Introductory Psychology book has this example.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) Impossible Figures - objects that can be represented in 2-dimensional pictures but can not exist in 3-dimensional space despite our perceptions. You know the artist, Escher who draws the pictures like...the hands drawing each other, the waterfall that goes down and stays level at the same time, etc...</span></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C) THE PERCEPTION OF PAIN</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Pain is an unpleasant yet important function for survival: warning system (but not all pain is needed for survival).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">There are two different pathways to the brain on which pain can travel - information brought from free nerve endings in the skin to the brain via two different systems:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) fast pathways - registers localized pain (usually sharp pain) and sends the information to the cortex in a fraction of a second. EX. - cut your finger with a knife.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) slow pathways - sends information through the limbic system which takes about 1-2 seconds longer than directly to the cortex (longer lasting, aching/burning).</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Factors in Pain Perception</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">-</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">not an automatic result of stimulation:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) expectations - research shown that our expectations about how much something will hurt can effect our perception.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Melzack - indicated that believing that something will be very painful helps us prepare for it.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - child birth: Lamaze method falsely leads us to believe it won't be painful. Maybe if we know it will be bad we can adequately prepare to handle it.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">another example - placebo effect - if we believe pain has stopped, it may.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) personality - people with negative types of personalities often have more pain. E</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - a very uptight person may experience muscle pains, back pains, etc.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) mood - bad moods, angry, unhappy, etc, can lead to the experience of increased pain.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - study manipulated moods of subjects then asked them to complete questionnaires of pain perception. Those in negative mood group reported significantly more pain than other subjects.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">So, it seems that our brains can regulate, control, determine, and even produce pain.</span></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">THEORIES OF PAIN PERCEPTION</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Gate Control Theory</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">(Melzack & Walls, 1965) - incoming pain must pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cord which determines what information about pain will be sent to the brain. So, it can be opened to allow pain through or closed to prevent pain from being perceived.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">The Gate - actually a neural network controlled by the brain. Located in an area of the spinal cord called the Substansia Gelatinosa. There are two types of nerve fibers in this area:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) large - sends fast signals and can prevent pain by closing the gate.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) small - sends slower signals which open the gate. So - when pain occurs it is because the large fibers are off and the small are on, opening the gate.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Since the gate is controlled by the brain, he factors discussed earlier (expectations, mood, personality) influence the functioning of the gate.</span></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Contradiction to Gate Control Theory:</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) endorphins - the body's own pain killers (morphine-like). May explain acupuncture, acupressure, pain tolerance during last two weeks of pregnancy, etc.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">BUT- endorphins may work with the gate control theory - maybe pain is perceived, endorphins are released, so the brain no longer needs the signals and closes the gate.</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">PHANTOM LIMBS</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">ability to feel pain, pressure, temperature, and many other types of sensations including pain in a limb that does not exist (either amputated or born without).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">the feelings and the pain are sometimes so life-like that person attempts to pick things up with phantom hand, step with phantom foot or leg, etc. Often person feels phantom moving in perfect coordination with the rest of the body - some report a missing arm extending outward at a 90 degree angle so they turn sideways when going through a doorway.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">may occur right after amputation or not until years later.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">often felt as part of the body (belonging to the rest of the body). EX. - with a missing leg, some report having a phantom foot but not the rest of the leg. Still, the foot feels as though it is part of the body.</span></p> <p><a href="http://www.alleydog%2ccom/101notes/phantom1.html"><span style="font-size:+1;">Go to Phantom Limb Pages - includes case studies</span></a></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Explanations:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) the neuroma explanation - remaining nerves in the stump grow into nodules (neuromas) at the end of the stump continue to fire signals. Signals follow the same pathways the brain as when the appendage existed.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) the spinal cord explanation - neurons in the spinal cord that are no longer receiving information from the lost appendage continue to send information to the brain.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Problem - studies have shown that when areas in the spinal cord are severed often feelings still being perceived from areas that meet the spinal cord in lower areas (below separation in spinal cord).</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) the brain explanation - signals in the somatosensory circuits of the brain change when the limb is lost which produce the phantom...the brain compensates for the loss or altered signals. This has been expanded - brain contains a network of fibers that not only respond to stimulation but continually generates a pattern of impulses that indicate that the body is intact and functioning. Thus, the brain creates the impression that the limb exists and is al right. This system may be prewired.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">4) the hardwired explanation - we may have a biological makeup to be born with all of our appendages. So, when we are born w/o one or lose one, the nerves are still there and are still going to send the information.</span></p> </blockquote> <hr align="left"><span style="font-size:+1;">Please note that we can not cover ALL the senses in class so make sure you read about taste, touch, hearing, and smell in the book.</span> <hr align="left"><br /> <p> </p> <p><a name="Muller-Lyer explained"></a></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">Muller-Lyer explained</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Although many theories exist for this illusion, there is no certain explanation. One theory is based on eye movement. When the arrows point inwards, our gaze rests inside the angles formed by the arrows. When they point outwards, our eyes demarcate the entire perspective and our gaze rests outside the angles. The outward pointing arrows make the figure more open and so the horizontal line appears longer.<br /><br />The illusion takes its name from Franz Carl Müller-Lyer (1857-1916), who studied medicine in Strasbourg and served as assistant director of the city's psychiatric clinic. Müller-Lyer's main works were in the field of sociology. He himself attempted to explain the illusion he had discovered as follows: "the judgment not only takes the lines themselves into consideration, but also, unintentionally, some part of the space on either side." He published two articles on the illusion bearing his name. ('Optical Illusions' 1889, and 'Concerning the Theory of Optical Illusions: on Contrast and Confluxion' 1896)<br /><br />Favreau (1977) studied a number of textbooks in which Müller-Lyer presented and measured the figures. He noticed that in many cases, the figure had been drawn the wrong way round so that the illusion appeared more forceful!</span></p> <p> </p> <p><a href="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/s&p.html#anchor451026">b</a></p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-24442433675996748602008-01-08T18:06:00.002+04:302008-01-08T18:07:03.468+04:30Learning notes<center> <span style="font-size:+2;"><img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /></span><a name="anchor177454"></a><span style="font-size:+2;">LEARNING/CONDITIONING <img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /></span> <hr /></center> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Learning seems to be one process that many people take for granted (just assume it happens and happens basically the same way for most people) but know very little about.<br /><br />So, how do we learn? How do other animals learn? Do we learn the same way? What are our limitations? Can we learn anything? Is there one right way to learn? To answer these questions, we need to first establish a definition of learning. Our definition is comprised of several different components:</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">The 4 Factors That Form The Definition of Learning:</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance*</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) learning results in an inferred change in memory</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) learning is the result of experience</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">4) learning is relatively permanent</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">This means that behavior changes that are temporary or due to things like drugs, alcohol, etc., are not "learned".</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">* Behavior Potential - once something is learned, an organism can exhibit a behavior that indicates learning as occurred. Thus, once a behavior has been "learned", it can be exhibited by "performance" of a corresponding behavior.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">It is the combination of these 4 factors that make our definition of learning. Or, you can go with a slightly less comprehensive definition that is offered in many text books: <b>Learning is a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.</b></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">We are going to discuss the two main types of learning examined by researchers, classical conditioning and operant conditioning.</span></p> <hr align="left"> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">I. Classical Conditioning</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Classical Conditioning</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">can be defined as</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a <strong>reflexive </strong>response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">A. Ivan Pavlov</span><span style="font-size:+1;"> - Russian physiologist interested in behavior (digestion).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs - he was measuring the amount of salivation produced by the salivary glands of dogs by presenting them meat powder through a food dispenser.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">The dispenser would deliver the meat powder to which the animals salivated. However, what Pavlov noticed was that the food dispenser made a sound when delivering the powder, and that the dogs salivated before the powder was delivered. He realized that the dogs associated the sound (which occurred seconds before the powder actually arrived) with the delivery of the food. Thus, the dogs had "learned" that when the sound occurred, the meat powder was going to arrive.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">This is conditioning (Stimulus-Response; S-R Bonds).</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">The stimulus (sound of food dispenser) produced a response (salivation). It is important to note that at this point, we are talking about reflexive responses (salivation is automatic).<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Terminology </span>(if you are still confused by these definitions, please look in the non-Psychology jargon glossary on the AlleyDog.com homepage):</p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) </span>-<span style="font-size:+1;"> a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Unconditioned Response (UR)</span> -<span style="font-size:+1;"> an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS)</span> -<span style="font-size:+1;"> a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">d) Conditioned Response (CR)</span> -<span style="font-size:+1;"> a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">*These are reflexive behaviors. Not a result from engaging in goal directed behavior.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">e) Trial - presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Don't worry, we will get to some examples that make this all much more clear.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3) Basic Principles:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Acquisition </span>-<span style="font-size:+1;"> formation of a new CR tendency.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">This means that when an organism learns something new, it has been "acquired".</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Pavlov believed in <strong>contiguity</strong> - temporal association between two events that occur closely together in time.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">The more closely in time two events occurred, the more likely they were to become associated; s time passes, association becomes less likely.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example, when people are house training a dog -- you notice that the dog went to the bathroom on the rug,. If the dog had the accident hours ago, it will not do any good to scold the dog because too much time has passed for the dog to associate your scolding with the accident. But, if you catch the dog right after the accident occurred, it is more likely to become associated with the accident.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">There are several different ways conditioning can occur -- order that the stimulus-response can occur:</span></p> <p><strong><span style="font-size:+1;">1. delayed conditioning (forward)</span> - the </strong><span style="font-size:+1;">CS is presented before the US and it (CS) stays on until the US is presented. This is generally the best, especially when the delay is short.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">example - a bell begins to ring and continues to ring until food is presented.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><strong><span style="font-size:+1;">2. trace conditioning</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">- </span></strong><span style="font-size:+1;">discrete event is presented, then the US occurs. Shorter the interval the better, but as you can tell, this approach is not very effective.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">example - a bell begins ringing and ends just before the food is presented.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><strong><span style="font-size:+1;">3. simultaneous conditioning</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">- </span></strong><span style="font-size:+1;">CS and US presented together. Not very good<strong>.</strong></span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">example - the bell begins to ring at the same time the food is presented. Both begin, continue, and end at the same time.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><strong><span style="font-size:+1;">4. backward conditioning</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">- </span></strong><span style="font-size:+1;">US occurs before CS.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">example - the food is presented, then the bell rings. This is not really effective.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Extinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Essentially, the organism continues to be presented with the conditioned stimulus but without the unconditioned stimulus the CS loses its power to evoke the CR. For example, Pavlov's dogs stopped salivating when the dispenser sound kept occurring without the meat powder following.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">c)</span><span style="font-size:+2;"> </span><span style="font-size:+1;">Spontaneous Recovery</span><span style="font-size:+2;"> -</span><span style="font-size:+1;"> sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere.</span><br /> </p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">d) Stimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For Example - a child who gets bitten by black lab, later becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear evoked by the Black Lab has now generalized to ALL dogs.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Another Example - little Albert</span> (I am assuming you are familiar with Little Albert, so I will give a very general example).</p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">John Watson conditioned a baby (Albert) to be afraid of a white rabbit by showing Albert the rabbit and then slamming two metal pipes together behind Albert's head (nice!). The pipes produced a very loud, sudden noise that frightened Albert and made him cry. Watson did this several times (multiple trials) until Albert was afraid of the rabbit. Previously he would pet the rabbit and play with it. After conditioning, the sight of the rabbit made Albert scream -- then what Watson found was that Albert began to show similar terrified behaviors to Watson's face (just looking at Watson's face made Albert cry. What a shock!). What Watson realized was that Albert was responding to the white beard Watson had at the time. So, the fear evoked by the white, furry, rabbit, had generalized to other white, furry things, like Watson's beard.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">f) Stimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For Example - a puppy may initially respond to lots of different people, but over time it learns to respond to only one or a few people's commands.</span><br /> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">g) Higher Order Conditioning</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">- a CS can be used to produce a response from another neutral stimulus (can evoke CS). There are a couple of different orders or levels. Let's take a "Pavlovian Dog-like" example to look at the different orders:<br /> </span></p> <p>In this example, light is paired with food. The food is a US since it produces a response without any prior learning. Then, when food is paired with a neutral stimulus (light) it becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - the dog begins to respond (salivate) to the light without the presentation of the food.</p> <blockquote> <p><u><span style="font-size:+1;">first order:<br /></span></u><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" height="71" width="600"> <tbody><tr> <td height="64" valign="top" width="50%"> 1) <span style="font-size:+1;">light -- US (food)</span><br /><span style="font-size:+1;"> \--> UR (salivation)</span></td> <td valign="top" width="50%"> 2) <span style="font-size:+1;">light -- US (food)</span><br /><span style="font-size:+1;"> \--> CR (salivation)</span></td> </tr> </tbody></table></p> <p><u><span style="font-size:+1;">second order:</span></u><br /><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" height="55" width="600"> <tbody><tr> <td height="48" width="294"> 3) <span style="font-size:+1;">tone -- light<br />\--> CR (salivation)</span></td> <td height="48" width="289"> 4) <span style="font-size:+1;">tone -- light </span><br /><span style="font-size:+1;"> \--> CR (salivation</span> ) <br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">B. Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">One of the great things about conditioning is that we can see it all around us. Here are some examples of classical conditioning that you may see:</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1. Conditioned Fear & Anxiety - many phobias that people experience are the results of conditioning.<br /></span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For Example - "fear of bridges" - fear of bridges can develop from many different sources. For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all bridges which now evoke fear. </span><br /> <br /><br /></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">2. Advertising - modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">US --> CS --> CR/UR</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">attractive person --> car --> pleasant emotional response</span><br /> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">3. A Clockwork Orange - No additional information necessary! If you haven't seen this movie or read the book, do it. You will find it very interesting, and a wonderful example of conditioning in action.</span></p> <hr align="left"> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">II. Operant Conditioning</span></p> <p><b><i><span style="font-size:+1;">Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary (controllable; non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced)</span></i></b>.</p> <p>Note: Skinner referred to this as Instrumental Conditioning/Learning</p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A. The most prominent figure in the development and study of Operant Conditioning was B. F. Skinner</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">1. History:</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) As an Undergraduate he was an English major, then decided to study Psychology in graduate school.</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Early in his career he believed much of behavior could be studied in a single, controlled environment (created Skinner box - address later).</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">Instead of observing behavior in the natural world, he attempted to study behavior in a closed, controlled unit. This prevents any factors not under study from interfering with the study - as a result, Skinner could truly study behavior and specific factors that influence behavior.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">c) during the "cognitive revolution" that swept Psychology (discussed later), Skinner stuck to the position that behavior was not guided by inner force or cognition. This made him a "radical behaviorist".</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">d) as his theories of Operant Conditioning developed, Skinner became passionate about social issues, such as free will, how they developed, why they developed, how they were propagated, etc.</span><br /></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">2. Skinner's views of Operant Conditioning</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in that the behaviors studied in Classical Conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However, the behaviors studied and governed by the principles of Operant Conditioning are non-reflexive (for example, gambling). So, compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviors, and the conditions in which they will occur.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviors that are performed so that the organism can obtain reinforcement.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) there are many factors involved in determining if an organism will engage in a behavior - just because there is food doesn't mean an organism will eat (time of day, last meal, etc.). SO, unlike classical conditioning...(go to "c", below)<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">c) in Op. Cond., the organism has a lot of control. Just because a stimulus is presented, does not necessarily mean that an organism is going to react in any specific way. Instead, reinforcement is dependent on the organism's behavior.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">In other words, in order for an organism to receive some type of reinforcement, the organism must behave in a specific manner. For example, you can't win at a slot machine unless several things happen, most importantly, you pull the lever. Pulling the lever is a voluntary, non-reflexive behavior that must be exhibited before reinforcement (hopefully a jackpot) can be delivered.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">d) in classical conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes <u>before</u> the behavior. But in Operant Conditioning, the controlling stimulus comes <u>after</u> the behavior. If we look at Pavlov's meat powder example, you remember that the sound occurred (controlling stimulus), the dog salivated, and then the meat powder was delivered. With Operant conditioning, the sound would occur, then the dog would have to perform some behavior in order to get the meat powder as a reinforcement. (like making a dog sit to receive a bone).<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">e) Skinner Box - This is a chamber in which Skinner placed animals such as rats and pigeons to study. The chamber contains either a lever or key that can be pressed in order to receive reinforcements such as food and water.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">* the Skinner Box created Free Operant Procedure - responses can be made and recorded continuously without the need to stop the experiment for the experimenter to record the responses made by the animal.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">f) Shaping - operant conditioning method for creating an entirely new behavior by using rewards to guide an organism toward a desired behavior (called Successive Approximations). In doing so, the organism is rewarded with each small advancement in the right direction. Once one appropriate behavior is made and rewarded, the organism is not reinforced again until they make a further advancement, then another and another until the organism is only rewarded once the entire behavior is performed.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For Example, to get a rat to learn how to press a lever, the experimenter will use small rewards after each behavior that brings the rat toward pressing the lever. So, the rat is placed in the box. When it takes a step toward the lever, the experimenter will reinforce the behavior by presenting food or water in the dish (located next to or under the lever). Then, when the rat makes any additional behavior toward the lever, like standing in front of the lever, it is given reinforcement (note that the rat will no longer get a reward for just taking a single step in the direction of the lever). This continues until the rat reliably goes to the lever and presses it to receive reward.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">3. Principles of Reinforcement<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given; and those in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is to <em><strong>increase the frequency or probability of a response occurring again</strong></em>.</span><br /></p> <blockquote> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">1) positive reinforcement </span></b><span style="font-size:+1;">- give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a treat (positive reinforcement)<br /> </span></p> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">2) negative reinforcement</span></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> - take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is made. For example, stop shocking a rat when it presses the lever (yikes!)</span> <br /><br /> <span style="font-size:+1;">** I can't tell you how often people use the term "negative reinforcement" incorrectly. It is NOT a method of increasing the chances an organism will behave in a bad way. It is a method of rewarding the behavior you want to increase. It is a good thing - not a bad thing!</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers<br /></span></p> <blockquote> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">1) primary reinforcer</span></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> - stimulus that <u>naturally</u> strengthens any response that precedes it (e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of the organism. These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.<br /> </span></p> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">2) secondary/conditioned reinforcer</span></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> - a previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become conditioned to the sound of food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is voluntary and occurs before the presentation of a reinforcer.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">4. Schedules of Reinforcement</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">There are two types of reinforcement schedules - continuous, and partial/intermittent (four subtypes of partial schedules)</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the size of the ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting reinforcement).</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - many factory workers are paid according to the number of some product they produce. A worker may get paid $10.00 for every 100 widgets he makes. This would be an example of an FR100 schedule.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except that the ratio varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is given after every N th response, but N is an average.</span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - slot machines in casinos function on VR schedules (despite what many people believe about their "systems"). The slot machine is programmed to provide a "winner" every average N th response, such as every 75th lever pull on average. So, the slot machine may give a winner after 1 pull, then on the 190th pull, then on the 33rd pull, etc...just so long as it averages out to give a winner on average, every 75th pull.<br /> </span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">c) Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain response must be made in order to get reinforcement.<br /></span></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - when you wait for a bus example. The bus may run on a specific schedule, like it stops at the nearest location to you every 20 minutes. After one bus has stopped and left your bus stop, the timer resets so that the next one will arrive in 20 minutes. You must wait that amount of time for the bus to arrive and stop for you to get on it.</span></p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">d) Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies.</span><br /></p> <blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">For example - when you wait to get your mail. Your mail carrier may come to your house at approximately the same time each day. So, you go out and check at the approximate time the mail usually arrives, but there is no mail. You wait a little while and check, but no mail. This continues until some time has passed (a varied amount of time) and then you go out, check, and to your delight, there is mail.</span><br /> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">5. Punishment</span><span style="font-size:+1;"> - Whereas reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring again, the premise of punishment is to <em><strong>decrease the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.</strong></em></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) Skinner did not believe that punishment was as powerful a form of control as reinforcement, even though it is the so commonly used. Thus, it is not truly the opposite of reinforcement like he originally thought, and the effects are normally short-lived.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) there are two types of punishment:</span></p> <blockquote> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">1) Positive</span></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> - presentation of an aversive stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant response occurring again. For example, a child reaches for a cookie before dinner, and you slap his hand.</span></p> <p><b><span style="font-size:+1;">2) Negative</span></b><span style="font-size:+1;"> - the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of an operant response occurring again. For example, each time a child says a curse word, you remove one dollar from their piggy bank.</span></p> <p> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+2;">6. Applications of Operant Conditioning</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">a) In the Classroom</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Skinner thought that our education system was ineffective. He suggested that one teacher in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child learns at a different rate. He proposed using teaching machines (what we now call computers) that would allow each student to move at their own pace. The teaching machine would provide self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback, immediate reinforcement, identification of problem areas, etc., that a teacher could not possibly provide.</span><br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">b) In the Workplace</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">I already gave the example of piece work in factories.<br /></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">Another example - study by Pedalino & Gamboa (1974) - To help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, the researchers implemented a game-like system for all employees that arrived on time. When an employee arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card. Over the course of a 5-day workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker. At the end of the week, the best hand won $20.</span> <span style="font-size:+1;">This simple method reduced employee tardiness significantly and demonstrated the effectiveness of operant conditioning on humans.<br /></span></p> <span style="font-size:+1;">There are also many clinical uses, including Ivar Lovaas' method of teaching autistic children how to speak </span>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-9669446985782521002008-01-08T18:06:00.001+04:302008-01-08T18:06:17.019+04:30Motivation and Emotion<center> <img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /><a name="anchor266226"></a><span style="font-size:+3;">MOTIVATION & EMOTION</span> <img src="http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /><span style="font-size:-2;"> <hr /></span></center> <p>In this section, we will examine motives, motivation, and some related theoretical perspectives before . covering Emotions, some of the components or elements to emotions, and some theoretical perspectives.</p> <p><b>Motivation</b></p> <p>Some "Why" questions: Why do you go to class each day? Why did Cain kill Abel? Why do students study for hours (sometimes even days) to pass examinations (and don't say, "to pass examinations")? Why do professors teach students, and why do they test students? Why did you pick out those shoes or those pants to wear today?<br /></p> <p>Each of these questions has an answer...there is some <b>motive</b> for engaging in those behaviors. We may define a <b>motive (or motivation)</b> <b>as a need, want, interest, or desire that propels someone (or an organism) in a certain direction.</b></p> <p>This motivating mechanism can be called many things--a habit, a belief, a desire, an instinct, a need, an interest, a compulsion, or a drive--but no matter what its label, it is this motivation that prompts us to take action. Indeed, the motivation comes from the verb "to move."</p> <p>Some Introductory Psychology books define the field of motivation as the study of <b>goal-directed behavior. </b>With this definition in mind, are humans the only type of living organism that can have motivation? <span style="font-size:-1;">(this is for you to think about, not a question I am going to answer for you at this point)<br /></span><span style="font-size:-2;"><br /><hr align="left"></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">I. Theoretical Perspectives</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A) Instinct Theories</span></p> <p>Many of the different theories of motivation are similar, except for the amount of emphasis they place on either biology or environment. Most include some level of both (some nature, some nurture). However, there is one theory that completely emphasizes biology...<b>Instinct theory</b>.<br /></p> <p>1) Instinct Theory -- states that motivation is the result of biological, genetic programming. Thus, all beings within a species are programmed for the same motivations.</p> <blockquote> <p>a) At the heart of this perspective, is the motivation to survive - we are biologically programmed to survive. And, all of our behaviors and motivations stem from biological programming. Thus, are actions are instincts.<br /> </p> <blockquote> <p>For example, a human mother, unlike many other species, will stay awake with a crying infant all night long trying to provide comfort. Why? Instinct theory suggests that she is programmed to behave in this manner - it is not due to learning or conditioning, not to being raised properly or poorly, not to having strong female role models or weak role models, or anything else, other that pure <b>biology</b>.</p> <p>This perspective is very much the sort that was offered recently in the controversial article that stated, Parents don't matter that much in the development of their children.<br /> </p> </blockquote> <p>b) William McDougal (1908) - influential theorist who viewed instincts as behavior patterns that are:</p> <blockquote> <p>1. unlearned</p> <p>2. uniform in expression</p> <p>3. universal in a species</p> <p>For example, within a species of bird, all the members may build identical nests and work in the same ways. This is true even for those birds of that species born and raised in captivity and isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest building behavior from other, experienced role model birds.<br /><br /> McDougal carried it a step further by stating that humans are the same and have instincts for behaviors such as: parenting, submission, jealousy, mating, and more.<br /> </p> </blockquote> <p>c) Problems with this perspective</p> <blockquote> <p>1. theorists have never been able to agree on a list of instincts; Many instincts are NOT universal and seem to be more dependent on individual differences (for example, jealousy. Not all humans exhibit the same jealously levels, behaviors, etc.).</p> <p>2. today - instinct theory has a more biological emphasis for specific motives and not all (like aggression and sex). But, there is still a strong instinct perspective in the study of animals (ethology)</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B) Sociobiological Perspective (Sociobiology)</span> -- <b>the study of genetic and evolutionary bases of behavior in all organisms, including humans. </b>This view spawned from instinct theory, but it is not purely an instinct theory.</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Major Viewpoint - sociobiology states that natural selection favors social behaviors that maximize reproductive success. Thus, the primary motivating force for living organisms (including humans) is to pass on our genes from one generation to the next.</p> <p>This theory, inspired by Charles Darwin, argues that in the last 15 million years the human species has evolved socially as well as physically. Through the process of natural selection, individuals who were even slightly predisposed to engage in adaptive social behaviors were the "fittest" and tended to survive longer and to be more successful in passing their genes along to future generations. Over countless generations, this selection process weeded out individuals who lacked these predispositions and those who possessed them prospered. Even though these tendencies may not enhance our fitness in today's world, eons spent in harsher environments have left us genetically predisposed to perform certain social behaviors when situational cues call forth ancient instincts</p> <p>Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any quality that increases survival will eventually become genetically based. However, sociobiology has changed this view slightly by arguing that the organism's fundamental goal is not mere survival, or even the survival of its offspring. Rather, the fittest individual is the one that succeeds in passing the maximum number of genes on to the next generation. Why, for example, do animals go to all the trouble of breeding and raising offspring? Because having children is an extremely effective means of ensuring the survival of one's genes in a future generation. Caring for offspring may seem self-sacrificing, but these actions are prompted by the gene's selfish tendency to seek survival at all costs. Even if the parent perishes protecting its young, its genes will continue to flourish in its offspring. To Darwin, the fittest animal is the one that can survive longest. To Hamilton, the fittest animal is the one that maximizes the survival of its genes in future generations.</p> <p>2) This perspective can explain motives such as competition, aggression, sexual activity, and dominance.</p> <p>3) It can also explain differences in men and women's mating preferences. For example:</p> <blockquote> <p>In one study an attractive man or woman (the researchers' accomplice) asked strangers of the opposite sex one of the following questions: "I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive." The accomplice then asked one of the following questions, depending on the group the subject had been assigned to: (a) "Would you go out with me tonight"; (b) "Would you come over to my apartment tonight?" (c) "Would you go to bed with me tonight?"</p> <p>The Results: None of the women agreed to the third request compared to the 75% hit rate for men. Is it possible that the differences were due to instincts or do you think they must be due to something else?</p> <p>In another example: Studies have shown that women are more likely to engage in extramarital affairs during ovulation, when they are more likely to get pregnant (the studies did NOT state or even insinuate that the women were making conscious efforts to get pregnant from a male other than their spouse or boyfriend, only that women were indeed more likely to be ovulating during the time they decided to have the extramarital affairs).</p> </blockquote> <p>4) Seems Selfish - this perspective may seem selfish, but it can also explain seemingly altruistic behaviors:</p> <blockquote> <p>For example: A Blackbird will risk death to signal the flock that a hawk (a predator) is nearby? In so doing, the Blackbird increases its chance of getting killed, but also increases the chances of the other Blackbirds surviving and, therefore, increasing the odds that more genes will be passed on.</p> <p>an organism will risk its own life to keep the possibility of passing on familial genes alive. Others of the same genetic strain will survive and keep the gene pool going even if that particular bird does not.</p> <p>so this may be a selfish perspective, but it has the potential to produce remarkably unselfish behavior.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C) Drive Theories</span></p> <blockquote> <p>a) A Drive is <b>an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should (hopefully) reduce this tension.</b></p> <p>b) Most organisms seem to try and maintain <b>Homeostasis</b> - a state of physiological equilibrium.</p> <blockquote> <p>For example, we have a homeostatic temperature of 98.6 degrees Farenheight. If this temperature begins to waiver enough you have a number of possible autonomic responses: if temperature increases, you perspire. If temperature decreases, you shiver.</p> </blockquote> <p>So, when you experience a drive, you are motivated to reduce this state of tension and pursue actions that will lead to a drive reduction (reduce the state of tension).<br /> </p> <blockquote> <p>For Example - hunger leads to physical discomfort (internal tension - drive), which leads to the motivation to get food, which leads to eating, which leads to a reduction in physical tension (drive reduction), which finally leads to the restoration of equilibrium.<br /> </p> </blockquote> <p>c) There are some problems:</p> <blockquote> <p>1) homeostasis seems irrelevant to some human motives - "thirst for knowledge"...what the heck is that?</p> <p>2) motivation may exist without a drive arousal. For example, humans do not eat only when they are hungry. Don't believe me? Ever go out for a nice dinner, eat enough to be full, but then still decide to have that great chocolate desert anyway? I thought so.<br /> </p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">D) Incentive Theory</span></p> <p>An <b>incentive</b> may be defined as an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior. This does not mean that it will always motivate behavior, only that it can.</p> <p>Now, we get to a situation in which we can see a difference with previous theories:</p> <p>Drive theory acts by an internal state <b>pushing</b> you in a specific direction. However, incentive theory acts when an external stimulus <b>pulls</b> you in a certain direction.<br /></p> <p>This is directly related to Skinner. Here we can see a move away from biological influence toward the environment and its influence on behavior. You attend class not because you were biologically programmed to become a student, but rather, because there is something external that is rewarding to you. Is it the grade you seek? Is it the desire to avoid going into the job market? Is it the desire to obtain a better job with a degree than possible without one? Regardless which it is, the idea is that the motivation is something external, not internal.<br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">E) Malsow's Need Hierarchy</span></p> <p>This Humanistic perspective is a blend of biological and social needs and is a sweeping overview of human motivation. Because Maslow believed that all needs vary in strength, he arranged them in a pyramidal form to indicate which have more strength. The most basic needs (like shelter and food) are vital to daily survival, and are at the bottom, while needs that are less important to staying alive are higher on the pyramid.<br /><br />We may define the Need Hierarchy as - <b>a systematic arrangement of needs according to priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused.</b> Thus, like stage theories, we must meet one need before we move on to the next.<br /><br />Levels:</p> <p>1) physiological - these include the need for food, water, and other vital components of life. If these needs are not met, the organism can't survive. Thus, these are the most basic and important.</p> <p>2) safety and security - these needs refer more to the long term survival than day to day needs. Humans tend to seek out order and have a desire to live in a world that is not filled with chaos and danger. As a result, they seek out stable lives with careers, homes, insurance, etc.</p> <p>3) belongingness and love - after obtaining a safe environment to live and establishing some long term plans, people seek out love and affection from family members, friends, and lovers.</p> <p>4) esteem - at this level, people become concerned with self-esteem which may be based on achievements that they earn, recognition from others for jobs they do, etc.</p> <p>5) cognitive - needs at this level are based on acquiring knowledge and understanding of the world, people, behavior, etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a degree) then you are attempting to fulfill your cognitive needs.</p> <p>6) aesthetic - aesthetic needs include beauty and order in life. Getting your life in order may provide a sense of comfort that people often lack. In addition, spending time finding and observing beauty in the world becomes an option and a desire as people do not have to struggle and fight to stay alive. Remember the episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation in which people from our century who had been frozen are found and thawed? These people could not understand that money was no longer important, that starvation had been abolished on Earth, and that people now had the opportunity and will to better themselves through learning about art, music, etc. Picard was preaching the aesthetic level of Maslow's hierarchy.</p> <p>7) self-actualization - this is the highest and most difficult level to reach. In fact, according to Maslow, very few people actually reach this level. Self-actualization is the need to fulfill one's own potential. As Maslow stated, "What a man <i>can</i> be, he <i>must</i> be." Interestingly, Maslow indicated that people will be frustrated if they can't pursue their true loves and talents. For example, if a person has a talent for painting, but they become a doctor, they will be forever frustrated because the need for self-actualization will be hindered.</p> <hr align="left"> <p><b>II. EMOTIONS</b></p> <p>We all have them, and yet most of us can't explain them. Do people really know why they have them, when they have them, how to control them, etc.? Like so many other aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions are comprised of several components. We will discuss emotions in terms of the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components.</p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A. Cognitive Level</span> (this is the label or name associated with the emotion)</p> <blockquote> <p>1) One key aspect of emotions, according to Woodworth & Sehlesberg, is that we have perceptions of them that usually ranges from :</p> <p>pleasantness-unpleasantness & weak-strong (this is the level of activation)</p> <p>So, we perceive our emotions as having some level of pleasantness and strength. For example, if your boyfriend or girlfriend breaks up with you, you experience some type of emotion, like sadness. Then, you experience this emotion along the pleasantness and strength dimensions - if you loved this person, you may experience sadness that is very unpleasant and intense (strength).</p> <blockquote> <p>1. Usually, research on emotions involve a person's subjective report or experience of an experience. Aside from all of the normal problems associated with self-report data, there are a few others that occur with self report measures of emotions:</p> <blockquote> <p>a) there are over 400 words in the English language that refer to emotions. So how do we know exactly what is meant (how do we operationalize) when someone says, for example, they feel "sad"? What does that mean compared to all the other words?</p> <p>b) people can't turn emotions on and off so control over these for study is very difficult.</p> <p>c) as we know, emotions involve some type of personal evaluations that normally ranges from pleasant-unpleasant. However, we may have experiences that involve both. For example - getting a promotion = more money, but also more responsibility and more time away from others activities. So there are both pleasant and unpleasant emotions associated with this one experience.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B. Physiological Level</span><b><br /></b></p> <p>Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal, usually at an autonomic level (involuntary/automatic).<br /></p> <p>For example - have you ever had the experience of being in a car when it spins out of control on an icy road? Almost instantly upon the car spinning off track, you experience an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, your pupils dilate, etc. This occurs, at some level, with all emotions. The systems involved with this activity are:</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Central Nervous System (CNS): limbic system and cortex</p> <p>2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): somatic and autonomic, sympathetic and parasympathetic<br /><br /> </p> </blockquote> <p>But, very often physiological changes are too small to notice. In these cases, we rely on:</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) - measures fluctuations in electrical conductivity of the skin that occur when sweat glands increase activity.<br /> </p> <p>2) Polygraph - "lie detector" - used to measure the subtle variations in muscle tension, heart rate, etc., associated with emotion that occur very subtly.<br /><br /> </p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C. Behavioral Level: Nonverbal Expression</span></p> <p>Very often organisms communicate without words. They may rely on smiling, frowning, clenching their fists, turning their backs, etc. Thus, we may communicate emotions nonverbally; through body language.</p> <p>One of the most influential and important researchers in the field of emotion, is Ekman. Here are a couple of examples from Ekman's work:</p> <blockquote> <p>Ekman showed photos to people and asked them to identify what emotion was being expressed in those photos. He found that people from different cultures could recognize common facial features (people from different cultures all identified, for example, smiling as a sign of happiness).</p> <p>He found 7 basic emotions most often identified from photos of facial expressions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt.</p> <p>He also indicated that the use of facial expressions to communicate seems to be innate - people who have been blind from birth make many similar facial expressions.</p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:-2;"><hr align="left"></span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">III. THEORIES OF EMOTIONS</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">A. JAMES-LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION</span></p> <p>1. Background:</p> <p>James and Lange (a Danish physiologist) proposed the same explanation of emotion at about same time - thus the theory was named for both of them.<br /></p> <p>2. A common sense idea about emotion would be:</p> <p>Environmental influence (some event) ---> Psychological experience ---> Physiological<span style="font-size:-2;"> </span>state changes (emotion)</p> <p> </p> <p>BUT: the James-Lange theory states:</p> <p>Environmental influence (event) --> Physiological change --> Psychological experience</p> <p>In other words, James and Lange would say, "I feel afraid because I tremble". If a person sees a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest that the person would tremble and then realize that, because they are trembling, they are afraid.</p> <p>3. James stated:</p> <blockquote> <p>"My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, and angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect ... and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble ... Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not actually feel afraid or angry."<br /> </p> </blockquote> <p>4. Problems:</p> <p>later studies separated the internal organs that James said caused arousal from the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily changes could not be the only factor involved in emotions.<br /></p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">B. The Cannon-Bard Theory</span></p> <p>1. Background: again two people had the same perspective at roughly the same time (although Cannon was considered to be the more influential one). This theory made use of information about physiological structures not available to James and Lange.<br /><br />2. Cannon's critique (1929) of James-Lange Theory - He indicated that some of the problems with the James-Lange theory were:</p> <blockquote> <p>a) People who show different emotions may have the same physiological (visceral) state - Example: cry when happy & sad</p> <p>b) visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the experience to be used as cues</p> <p>c) visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions, which erupt very quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry before you feel sad? Or can you feel sad before crying?</p> <p>d) physiological arousal may occur without the experience of an emotion:</p> <p>For example: exercise --> increased heart rate --> no emotional significance</p> </blockquote> <p>3. back to common sense theory:</p> <p>Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to BOTH the cortex (which produces conscious experience of emotion) and autonomic nervous system (visceral arousal) at the same time.</p> <p>BUT - as we already know, the thalamus is not the only player involved in emotion. The limbic system, hypothalamus and others are all involved. So, this leads us to the Cognitive view.</p> <p><span style="font-size:+1;">C. Cognitive View: Schachter and Singer Two Factor Theory</span></p> <blockquote> <p>1) Schachter and Singer maintain that we don't automatically know when we are happy, angry, or jealous. Instead, we label our emotions by considering situational cues. We feel some emotion. To really understand what emotion we are having at that particular time, we use the cues in the environment at the time to help us determine the current emotion. This labeling process depends on two factors:</p> <blockquote> <p>a) some element in the situation must trigger a general, nonspecific arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of the stomach, and rapid breathing.</p> <p>b) people search the situation/environment for cues that tell them what has caused the emotion.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p>The infamous Schachter-Singer study of emotion:</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Schachter and Singer told men who volunteered they were studying a vitamin supplement called Suproxin. The men were asked if they were willing to take the drug, and those who consented were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine, which is also called adrenaline, is released by our hormonal system whenever we face a stressful situation, and generally increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration. Thus the men who received the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than those who received the inert placebo.</p> <p>2) Schachter and Singer manipulated subjects' interpretations of their physical sensations. They told some of the epinephrine-injected subjects that even though the drug wasn't harmful, side effects were quite common: they might feel flushed, their hands might shake, and their hearts might pound. The other subjects, in contrast, were given no information at all about the effects of the drug. Schachter and Singer reasoned that once the epinephrine kicked in, their subjects would begin to search for the cause of their arousal. People who had been told that the drug would arouse them should have assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and their heart to pound. But if they weren't warned about the drug's effects, then they would be more likely to interpret their arousal as an emotion.</p> <p>3) What kind of emotion would these uninformed subjects experience? Schachter and Singer believed that their reaction would depend on the available situational cues. They therefore manipulated this variable as well. They arranged for their subjects to wait for the Suproxin's effects in a small room with another person. This individual was one of Schachter and Singer's accomplices, and he was trained to behave in either a euphoric or angry fashion. The euphoric confederate clowned around during the 20 minutes, doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of "basketball" with wadded up balls of paper, making and flying a paper airplane, building a tower out of file folders, and playing with a Hula Hoop. The angry confederate, in contrast, became increasingly agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were asked to complete questionnaires that contained very personal questions. The accomplice, after loudly criticizing questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father's income, and family members' bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment, flew into a rage at the question "How many times each week do you have sexual intercourse?"</p> <p>4) Schachter and Singer observed and coded the actions taken by each subject, and also asked them to describe their emotion state. As they had predicted, the physiologically aroused subjects who hadn't been told about the drug's side-effects responded with emotions that matched the confederate's actions. If they were aroused and hadn't been expecting the arousal, then they felt happy when their fellow subject was happy, but angry when their fellow subject was angry. Forewarned subjects and unaroused subjects who received a placebo, however, did not display any pronounced emotion. Also, the subjects in a special control condition--people who had been given epinephrine but had been misinformed about its possible effect -- also displayed the emotions enacted by a euphoric confederate</p> </blockquote>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-56614410516273935622008-01-08T18:05:00.001+04:302008-01-08T18:05:36.936+04:30Memory Notes<center> <span style="font-size:-2;"><img src="http://www.alleydog.com/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /></span><a name="anchor260040"></a><span style="font-size:+3;">MEMORY</span> <img src="http://www.alleydog.com/images/psy.gif" align="middle" border="0" /><span style="font-size:-2;"> <hr /></span></center> <p>Memory is one of the most fascinating topics you can ever hope to study in any field. It is a fundamental component of daily life. We rely on it so heavily, that it is not a stretch to say that life without memory would be close to impossible. Our very survival depends on our ability to remember who we are, who others are, our past experiences, what is dangerous, what is safe, etc. Its importance can't be understated.</p> <p>In addition, people often believe their memories to be absolute and true. After all, it would be very disconcerting to think that the things that we remember to be true, are in fact wrong. The reality is, memory is not complete or absolute. In fact, many of our memories are completely wrong and yet we hold onto them dearly. We are sure of our memories...we know what happened to us...where we have been...what we said...what we did. Or do we? Although you will not get to witness this, one of my favorite activities to conduct in class is to create false memories in students. One example that use (I have lots, but this is an easy one to explain) is to read a list of words that all fit into a certain category (for example, couch, stool, recliner, etc.) and then ask the students to write down as many word as they can recall immediately after I finish the list. The key is that the word "chair" is never included in the list that I read, but it is the target word - it is a word that fits perfectly into the category I am reading, but it not included in the list. What I usually find is close to 100% of the students include "chair" on their list and insist that I said it. In fact, several times I have had to get one of the students who was taping the class to play back the tape just to prove that I never said the word "chair". Even in this case, students often leave convinced that they heard "chair"...sure that they "remember" that word being said. Now think about this - in that example, the students are asked to recall the words immediately after I read the list; immediately. If their memories are incorrect then, what happens to memories after a day has passed; a week; a month; years?</p> <p>In this section, we will discuss how memory occurs - the process of storing and retrieving information. We will also take a look at some of the ways that this process is limited and the results of such an imperfect memory system (for example, we will examine false memories). So, let's get started.</p><hr align="left">Memory can be defined as <b><i>the storage of learned information for retrieval and future use</i>.</b> <p><b>I. The Key Questions</b></p> <p>When psychologists study memory they usually focus on 3 key questions:</p> <p>1) How does information get <b>INTO</b> memory?</p> <p>2) How is information <b>MAINTAINED</b> in memory?</p> <p>3) How do we get information <b>BACK OUT</b> of memory?</p> <p>These 3 questions correspond to the 3 key processes in memory:</p> <blockquote> <p>ENCODING --> STORAGE --> RETRIEVAL</p> </blockquote> <hr align="left"> <p>II. Basic Processes<span style="font-size:-1;"> (we will discuss each in detail later, but for now we need a few definitions)</span></p> <p>A. Encoding - <b><i>process of forming a memory code in order to get information into memory</i>.</b></p> <p>For Example: we may emphasize the shape of a dog's nose to identify the breed (e.g., a German Sheppard has a longer, more pointed nose than a bull dog) and subsequently make a code for "German Sheppard" according to the dog's nose.</p> <p>1) Encoding usually involves <b>attention - <i>focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events</i>.</b></p> <p>B. Storage (memory stores) - <b><i>maintaining encoded information in memory over a period of time</i>.</b></p> <p>C. Retrieval - <b><i>recovering information from memory stores</i>.</b></p> <p>These 3 processes are the foundation for all memory - how it works and why it may not work at times. When memory does not work, we have forgetting, which may occur at any of these 3 levels. We will address forgetting soon, but for now let's focus on how memory works.</p> <p>The most popular model/theoretical framework today is the Information Processing Theory, modeled after computers.</p> <p><span style="font-size:-2;"><hr align="left"></span></p> <p>III. The Atkinson & Shiffrin Information Processing Model</p> <p>According to this model information must pass through two temporary storage buffers (stores) before it can be placed into more permanent storage, and then retrieved for later use. Take a look at the model below to get an overview of the whole process, and then move on with the notes.</p> <center> <img src="http://www.alleydog.com/images/atkinsin.gif" height="345" width="472" /> </center> <center> </center> <p>For the memory process to begin, we must first encounter some stimulus (identified as "input" in the model above), which goes into sensory storage.</p> <p>A. Sensory Storage - <b><i>the immediate, initial recording of sensory information</i>.</b></p> <blockquote> <p>Here information is preserved for a very brief time (usually only a fraction of a second) in its original form.</p> <p>The name "sensory storage" implies that something perceptual occurs. In fact, what enters into sensory storage are images (in the case of vision), or more precisely, afterimages. Although the actual stimulus may have disappeared, we may still perceive it for a second or so.</p> <p>The actual length of time an image exists in sensory storage depends on the modality:</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Iconic memory - a visual image in sensory storage. Although most people seem to believe that visual images last longer (this is based on intuition, not science), they do not - they last approximately 1/4 of a second.</p> <p>2) Echoic memory - auditory image. These (as well as other senses) seem to last up to 3 seconds.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p>SO, we can see that within sensory storage we have 2 distinct stores - an iconic and echoic.</p> <p>Once one of these types of memories occur, we have some raw data that will be lost if we do not engage in one of two processes (these two processes are required to get information from sensory memory to short term memory).</p> <blockquote> <p>1) Pattern recognition - when new information comes into sensory storage, we actively search through long term memory in an effort to find a match for this new raw data.</p> <p>2) Attention<span style="font-size:-2;"> </span>- this is pretty obvious. The more we pay attention to a stimulus, the more likely it will continue onto the next memory store (short term memory)</p> </blockquote> <p>Once we have successfully recognized or attended to the information, we are able to bring the information into SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM).</p> <p>B. Short-Term Memory - <i>a limited capacity store that can maintain information for approximately 20 seconds</i>.</p> <p>It is possible to extend duration of STM (to approximately 30 seconds) by engaging in a process called Maintenance Rehearsal.</p> <p><b>1) Maintenance Rehearsal</b> -<i> the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about the information.</i></p> <p>For example - late at night, you have been out partying all night, you et back home and you are hungry. you decide...it's time for pizza. So you pick up the phone and call information to get the number of a local pizza delivery place. When the operator gives the number, you say the number over and over so that you don't forget it in the time it takes to hang up and dial the number. This process of repeating the number over and over is actually maintenance rehearsal. It won't help get the information into long term memory, but it will help keep it in short term memory a little longer.</p> <p><b>2) Slots</b> - STM seems to be divided into "slots" - to be precise, STM has 7 slots, each one capable of holding one piece of information.</p> <blockquote> <p>This is also commonly referred to as the MAGIC #7 (+/- 2), which was introduced by George Miller.</p> </blockquote> <p>But, we are bombarded with so much information all the time that STM can become cluttered. In order to prevent the clutter from become too much, STM pushes some information out in order to make room for other information. But what gets pushed out???</p> <p>3) Primacy and Recency</p> <blockquote> <p>a) Primacy - when you are receiving information, the information perceived first is more likely to be remembered. This more recent information may simply get to long term memory more easily, and thus be remembered or we may just rehearse the early information more.</p> <p>b) Recency - information perceived toward the end of an event is also more likely to be remembered. So, information in the "middle" seems to get pushed out and is less likely to be remembered.</p> </blockquote> <p>While maintenance rehearsal will help keep information in STM, the only way to bring information into long-term memory is through ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL.</p> <p><b>4) Elaborative Rehearsal</b> - <i>connecting new information with previously stored, already existing associative structures</i>.</p> <blockquote> <p>For Example - when our sixth grade teachers used to make us put a vocabulary word into context in a sentence - this combines the new information (the vocabulary word) with an associative structure (the sentence).</p> <p>"Johnny, the word is pimple. Can you use pimple in a sentence?" "Yes. My head is so full of all of this Psychological information, I think it is going to pop like a big, white, pimple"</p> </blockquote> <p><b>C. Long Term Memory (LTM)</b> <i>- an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time</i>.</p> <p>The name is a bit of a misnomer, since information in LTM may stay there over the course of a life-span.</p> <p>1) there are 3 categories (or subcategories) of LTM:</p> <blockquote> <p>a) Procedural memory - this is the most basic type of long term memory (very simplistic) and primarily involves memories of rudimentary procedures and behaviors.</p> <blockquote> <p>For example - procedural memories include our memory for eating, sitting in a chair, etc. As you can see, these are are based on behavior.</p> <p>some even suggest that there is an additional, basic category called DECLARATIVE memory - just factual information like names and dates.</p> </blockquote> <p>b) Semantic memory - mental models of the environment as well as procedures.</p> <blockquote> <p>For example - knowledge of word meanings, language, strategies for problem solving, factual information (like laws), etc.</p> </blockquote> <p>c) Episodic memory - information about events, people, places, etc., that include an autobiographical aspect as well as a time and place.</p> <blockquote> <p>For example - "I saw a bear last night in my back yard."</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p>Now that we have seen how memory works, let's look at how or why memory may NOT work.</p> <p><span style="font-size:-2;"><hr align="left"></span></p> <p><b>IV. Theories of Forgetting</b></p> <p>1) Decay - forgetting due to memories fading over time. This does NOT apply to LTM.</p> <blockquote> <p>This often occurs in sensory storage and STM since we do not need to process and store all the information that we encounter. As a result, there is a lot of information we don't attend to, recognize, or rehearse, and so it simply fades away.</p> </blockquote> <p>2) Interference - hindrance of learning new information because of other information learned before or after the new information. There are two types:</p> <blockquote> <p>a) Proactive interference - information learned previously causes problems with new information.</p> <p>For Example - if you took Psychology 101 already with a different teacher they may have presented information differently than me. This may affect your ability to recall the information in the way I have explained it. You get them mixed together.</p> <p>b) Retroactive interference - new information cause recall problem with previously learned information.</p> <p>For example - now you are learning in my class, you can not recall the information the way it was presented by your previous Psychology 101 instructor.</p> </blockquote> <p>3) Retrieval-Based Forgetting - information stored in LTM is not being accessed or brought out properly; however, if given enough time or cues, it is possible to retrieve the information.</p> <blockquote> <p>a) this suggests that LTM is permanent. Since the information is said to still be in LTM and not lost (the person has the information but just can't get to it).</p> </blockquote> <p>4) Storage-Based Forgetting - information in LTM was distorted, altered, or changed so it is no longer accessible when searching for what it "used to be". The information can be retrieved, but only if you look for it in its new form.</p> <p>5) Motivated Forgetting - a purposeful process of blocking or "suppressing" information.</p> <blockquote> <p>a) FREUD referred to this as Repression - keeping distressing thoughts or feelings buried in the unconscious. (I am always amused when clinical Psychologists renounce Freud as a lunatic and then, in the same breath, talk about how meaningful and real repression is. They seem to forget who pioneered this area).</p> <p>BUT - can we actually intentionally forget something?</p> <p>Here is a quick HOMEWORK assignment - do whatever you must do to forget the number sequence 5-3-1. Try as hard as you can to forget it - do what you must, but forget the number sequence 5-3-1!!</p> <p>b) Today, Repressed Memories are a very hot topic, but how much can we trust repressed memories? How often are these memories actually False Memories?</p> <p>When a repressed memory is remembered, we say it has been Recovered. A recovered memory can be defined as the emergence of a formerly repressed memory.</p> <blockquote> <p>1. even Freud, who pioneered this area, had doubts about this:</p> <blockquote> <p>a. He was never able to confirm that childhood sexual traumas cause later adult pathology.</p> <p>b. Even he realized that not all recovered memories were accurate.</p> </blockquote> </blockquote> </blockquote> <p>Thus, it is possible that some or all of these memories are actually false memories.</p> <p><span style="font-size:-2;"><hr align="left"></span>V.<span style="font-size:-2;"> </span>False Memories - How and Why:</p> <p>A. The Misinformation Effect - an unconscious adoption of later-learned information. We know that our experiences affect memory...experiences that occur before, during, and after a memory is formed. Thus, the misinformation effect occurs when information received after a memory has formed influences the way we remember the event.</p> <p>1) How - it occurs when someone fails to record into memory certain details of an event (remember, we can't process and store ALL pieces of information from an event). Then, when they see or hear another person's account of what occurred, they include these new pieces of information into their own memory. This finding has been demonstrated empirically many times.</p> <p>2) Children may be especially susceptible to this since they have less sophisticated encoding ability which results in more memory fragments. These fragments leave holes or gaps that are then filled in by experiences (social influences).</p> <blockquote> <p>studies of memories of abuse in children.<span style="font-size:-2;"> </span>There was a series of studies a few years ago in which young children of different ages were given physical exams and then questioned about the exams afterwards (the interviews occurred right after the exam, a short time later, and then a few more times across the next Year). The doctors were part of the experimental team and acted according to a script and so children were treated and touched in very controlled ways (plus the exams were video taped). The children were asked about where the doctors touched them, how the doctors touched them, etc...much like children are questioned by police and Psychologists when trying to determine whether sexual abuse has occurred. The results indicated that, despite NO fondling or sexual contact in any way (no genitalia were touched, etc.), many of the children stated that they had been touched in inappropriate places by the doctors. Many of the reports did not happen at first, but over time and with different questions, the children began to alter their stories slightly.</p> </blockquote> <p>3) Eye-witness testimony - despite the importance we place on eye-witness testimony in our legal system, experts agree that it is, at best, very questionable and susceptible to influence and change.</p> <blockquote> <p>Police are notorious for using leading questions to evoke the types of responses they want from witnesses. For example, if you were a witness to a robbery, a police officer might ask you, "what type of gun did the robber have" instead of asking you "did the robber have any type of weapon". In addition, the more you learn about a case (TV, newspapers, etc.) the more likely you are to incorporate the new information into your own memory of the event.</p> </blockquote> <p><span style="font-size:-2;"><hr align="left"></span></p> <p>Some final misconceptions about repressed memories</p> <p>1) wouldn't repressed or false memories be less vivid?</p> <p>No - research has shown that false memories are often "recollected" with more clarity and certainty than real memories</p> <p>2) Wouldn't it be different for a traumatic event?</p> <p>NO - research has shown that memories of real traumatic events in childhood often fade over time.</p> <p>BUT - if an event is VERY TRAUMATIC it is more likely to become problematic due to inability to stop thinking about it. People often dwell on a traumatic event, not forget it (PTSD).</p> <p>3) Does this mean that Repression is all a myth?</p> Not necessarily. The research is not conclusive, but suggests that repressed memories may not be as common as people may believe today (it seems to have gotten very hip today)MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-45654740716544718522007-12-27T17:58:00.000+04:302007-12-27T18:09:48.665+04:30Ondeondu sari kanmunde<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dz27eYLShm9xgKFyplqtZpkWZ7MIOxYWMW5lYp8WYdm2xVmPnJ7KxHoAtWxHO6ovj27f83antvV1MB6zk09ZQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-27287358102079612612007-12-27T17:52:00.000+04:302007-12-27T18:09:39.972+04:30JAB WE MET<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzRSDNVpiSk5bpRcFwVdyAaE_R7GlHW8XYZ3wSPbEELmgYDsgGN__IBXkwvvGNFny-oNaJ10rJO80ZI-E4sdQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-60122326245651824382007-12-03T16:53:00.001+04:302007-12-03T16:53:50.838+04:30Commitee for the Rural Camp<p class="MsoTitle"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">CHRIST COLLEGE, BANGALORE – 29<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b>DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoCaption">I SEMESTER MSW<span style=""> </span>(2007 – 2009)</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div align="center"> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b>S. No.<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b>Register No.<o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b>Name of the Student <o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b><span style=""> </span>Committee <o:p></o:p></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">1.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0901</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Chatrik Singh</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">2.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0902</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Deepu Abraham K.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning and discipline </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">3.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0903</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jai Kumar C.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Deputy coordinator</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">4.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0904</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">John Francis Abraham </p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">5.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0905</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jomi Mathew</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">6.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0906</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Justin Johny J.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">7.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0907</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Lakshmi Narayanan K.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Miscellaneous including health</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">8.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0908</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Lijo K. Joseph </p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Finance</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">9.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0909</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Nidhin Xavier</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Communication </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">10.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0910</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Or Vitou</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning and discipline</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">11.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0911</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Shrikantha A.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">12.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0912</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Sujan B.R.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Finance </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">13.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0913</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">A. Shweta Subramani</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">14.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0914</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Anamika Sarkar</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Communication </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">15.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0915</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Angela Jean D’Souza</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">16.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0916</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Ashwathi Philip</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">17.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0917</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Ashwini Shetty N.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Communication </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">18.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0918</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Deepa K.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">19.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0919</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Deepa Sai P.R.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">20.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0920</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Divya Nair</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">21.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0921</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Divya P. Menon</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">22.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0922</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Elizabeth Divyanathan</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">23.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0923</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jincy Ouseph</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">24.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0924</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jisna Michael</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">25.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0925</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jyotika Samuel</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">27.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0927</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Kasturee Kakaty</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reporting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">28.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0928</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Lalita Roshni Lakra</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reporting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">29.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0929</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Maria Xavier</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reporting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">30.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0930</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Mary Susan Cherian</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reposting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">31.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0931</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Mouna Devaiah</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reporting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">32.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0932</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Neha Dobhal </p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning and discipline </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">33.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0933</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Noopura Sundaresh</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">34.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0934</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Prithvi T.S.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Communication </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">35.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0935</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Priya N. Bhat </p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Planning and discipline</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">36.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0936</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Priyanka K.S.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">37.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0937</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Raksha S.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">38.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0939</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Shuseela Kullu</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">39.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0940</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Sowmya R.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">40.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0941</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Srividya S.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">41.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0943</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Tabia Muzaffar</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Reporting and research </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">42.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0944</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Tasha Koshi</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Finance </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">43.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0945</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Thereza Varghese</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">44.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0946</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Varsha C. </p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Communication </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">45.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0947</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Jemin K. Thomas</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">46.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0948</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Sahana Annappa</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Culture </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">47.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0949</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Anubha K.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Coordinator </p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 9.56%;" valign="top" width="9%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">48.</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 15.22%;" valign="top" width="15%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">07PG0950</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.62%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Spince Jose Thuruthikara</p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.6%;" valign="top" width="37%"> <p class="MsoNormal">Food </p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-13173535969065151492007-12-03T16:45:00.001+04:302007-12-03T16:45:35.956+04:30Classical and Operant Conditioning<p style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 18pt;">Classical or "Pavlovian" Conditioning</span> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Theory <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by Pavlov's experiments with dogs. The gist of the experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food, and measured their salivary response (how much they drooled). Then he began ringing a bell just before presenting the food. At first, the dogs did not begin salivating until the food was presented. After a while, however, the dogs began to salivate when the sound of the bell was presented. They learned to associate the sound of the bell with the presentation of the food. As far as their immediate physiological responses were concerned, the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation of the food. <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Classical conditioning is used by trainers for two purposes: To condition (train) autonomic responses, such as the drooling, producing adrenaline, or <a href="http://www.shirleychong.com/keepers/archives/teeth.txt"><span style="color: windowtext;">reducing adrenaline</span></a> (calming) without using the stimuli that would naturally create such a response; and, to create an association between a stimulus that normally would not have any effect on the animal and a stimulus that would. <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Stimuli that animals react to without training are called <em>primary</em> or <em>unconditioned stimuli</em> (US). They include food, pain, and other "hardwired" or "instinctive" stimuli. Animals do not have to learn to react to an electric shock, for example. Pavlov's dogs did not need to learn about food. <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Stimuli that animals react to only after learning about them are called <em>secondary</em> or <em>conditioned stimuli</em> (CS). These are stimuli that have been associated with a primary stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, the sound of the bell meant nothing to the dogs at first. After its sound was associated with the presentation of food, it became a conditioned stimulus. If a warning buzzer is associated with the shock, the animals will learn to fear it. <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style="">Secondary stimuli are things that the trainee has to learn to like or dislike. Examples include school grades and money. A slip of paper with an "A" or an "F" written on it has no meaning to a person who has never learned the meaning of the grade. Yet students work hard to gain "A's" and avoid "F's".</b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span>A coin or piece of paper money has no meaning to a person who doesn't use that sort of system. Yet people have been known to work hard to gain this secondary reinforcer. (See an interactive visual guide to CC <a href="http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch06/ccparadigm.mhtml"><span style="color: windowtext;">here</span></a> - and an amusing take on classical conditioning <a href="http://www.ifilm.com/video/2820493"><span style="color: windowtext;">here</span></a>.)<a name="Charge"></a> <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><a name="Operant"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Operant Conditioning</span></b></a><span style=""></span><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><i><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Classical </span></i></b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">conditioning forms an association between two stimuli. <i>Operant </i>conditioning forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. (It is also called <i>response-stimulus </i>or RS conditioning because it forms an association between the animal's response [behavior] and the stimulus that follows [consequence])<a name="Consequences"></a> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 18pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Four Possible Consequences</span></b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are four possible consequences to any behavior. They are: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Something Good can start or be presented;</span></b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /><span style="">Something Good can end or be taken away;</span><br /><span style="">Something Bad can start or be presented;</span><br /><span style="">Something Bad can end or be taken away.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Consequences have to be immediate, or clearly linked to the behavior. With verbal humans, we can explain the connection between the consequence and the behavior, even if they are separated in time. For example, you might tell a friend that you'll buy dinner for them since they helped you move, or a parent might explain that the child can't go to summer camp because of her bad grades. With very young children, humans who don't have verbal skills, and animals, you can't explain the connection between the consequence and the behavior. For the animal, the consequence has to be immediate. The way to work around this is to use a bridge (see above). <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Technical Terms <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The technical term for "an event started" or "an item presented" is <i>positive</i>, since it's something that's <i>added</i> to the animal's environment. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The technical term for "an event ended" or "an item taken away" is <i>negative</i>, since it's something that's <i>subtracted </i>from the animal's environment. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Anything that <i>increases </i>a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a <i>reinforcer</i>. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will increase the behaviors that lead to them, so they are <i>reinforcers</i>. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Anything that <i>decreases </i>a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a <i>punisher</i>. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are <i>punishers</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences, you get: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior decreases = Negative Punishment (P-) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior decreases = Positive Punishment (P+) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement (R-) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">or: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <div align="center"> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 72%;" border="1" cellpadding="0" width="72%"> <tbody><tr style="height: 36.75pt;"> <td style="padding: 3.75pt; width: 20%; height: 36.75pt;" width="20%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt; width: 36%; height: 36.75pt;" width="36%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Reinforcement<br /> (behavior increases) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt; width: 44%; height: 36.75pt;" width="44%"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Punishment<br /> (behavior decreases)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive<br /> (something added)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive Reinforcement:<br /> Something added increases behavior<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive Punishment<br /> Something added decreases behavior<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative<br /> (something removed)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative Reinforcement<br /> Something removed increases behavior<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> <td style="padding: 3.75pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative Punishment<br /> Something removed decreases behavior<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Remember that these definitions are based on their actual effect on the behavior in question: they must reduce or strengthen the behavior to be considered a consequence and be defined as a punishment or reinforcement. Pleasures meant as rewards but that do not strengthen a behavior are indulgences, not reinforcement; aversives meant as a behavior weakener but which do not weaken a behavior are abuse, not punishment. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <hr align="center" size="2" width="100%"> </span></b></div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><a name="Rplus"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive Reinforcement </span></b></a><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This is possibly the easiest, most effective consequence for a trainer to control (and easy to understand, too!). Positive reinforcement means starting or adding Something Good, something the animal likes or enjoys. Because the animal wants to gain that Good Thing again, it will repeat the behavior that seems to cause that consequence. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Examples of positive reinforcement: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick. The worker gets a paycheck for working. The dog gets a piece of liver for returning when called. The cat gets comfort for sleeping on the bed. The wolf gets a meal for hunting the deer. The child gets dessert for eating her vegetables. The dog gets attention from his people when he barks. The elephant seal gets a chance to mate for fighting off rivals. The child gets ice cream for begging incessantly. The toddler gets picked up and comforted for screaming. The dog gets to play in the park for pulling her owner there. The snacker gets a candy bar for putting money in the machine. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Secondary positive reinforcers and Bridges <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A <i>primary</i> positive reinforcer is something that the animal does not have to learn to like. It comes naturally, no experience necessary. Primary R+s usually include food, water, often include sex (the chance to mate), the chance to engage in instinctive behaviors, and for social animals, the chance to interact with others. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A <i>secondary </i>positive reinforcer is something that the animal has to learn to like. The learning can be accomplished through Classical Conditioning or through some other method. A paycheck is a secondary reinforcer - just try writing a check to reward a young child for potty training! <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Animal trainers will often create a special secondary reinforcer they call a <i>bridge</i>. A bridge is a stimulus that has been associated with a primary reinforcer through <a href="http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/index.htm#Classical"><span style="color: windowtext;">classical conditioning</span></a>. This process creates a <i>conditioned positive reinforcer</i>, often called a <i>conditioned reinforcer</i> or CR for short. Animals that have learned a bridge react to it almost as they would to the reward that follows (animals that have learned what clicker training is all about may sometimes prefer the CR that tells them they got it right over the actual "reward"). <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><a name="schedule"></a><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Schedules of Reinforcement, and Extinction <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A schedule of reinforcement determines how often a behavior is going to result in a reward. There are five kinds: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio, and random. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A fixed interval means that a reward will occur after a fixed amount of time. For example, every five minutes. Paychecks work on this schedule - every two weeks I got one. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A variable interval schedule means that reinforcers will be distributed after a varying amount of time. Sometimes it will be five minutes, sometimes three, sometimes seven, sometimes one. My e-mail account works on this system - at varying intervals I get new mail (for me, email is generally a Good Thing!). <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A fixed ratio means that if a behavior is performed X number of times, there will be one reinforcement on the Xth performance. For a fixed ratio of 1:3, every third behavior will be rewarded. This type of ratio tends to lead to lousy performance with some animals and people, since they know that the first two performances will not be rewarded, and the third one will be no matter what. Some assembly-line production systems work on this schedule - the worker gets paid for every 10 widgets she makes. A fixed ratio of 1:1 means that every correct performance of a behavior will be rewarded. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A variable ratio schedule means that reinforcers are distributed based on the average number of correct behaviors. A variable ratio of 1:3 means that <i>on average</i>, one out of every three behaviors will be rewarded. It might be the first. It might be the third. It might even be the fourth, as long as it averages out to one in three This is often referred to as a <i>variable schedule of reinforcement</i> or VSR (in other words, it's often assumed that when someone writes "VSR" they are referring to a variable <i>ratio</i> schedule of reinforcement). <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">With a random schedule, there is no correlation between the animal's behavior and the consequence. This is how Fate works. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">If reinforcement fails to occur after a behavior that has been reinforced in the past, the behavior might extinguish. This process is called <i>extinction</i>. A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement makes the behavior less vulnerable to extinction. If you're not expecting to gain a reward every time you accomplish a behavior, you are not likely to stop the first few times your action fails to generate the desired consequence. This is the principle that slot machines are based on. "OK, I didn't win this time, but next time I'm almost <i>sure</i> to win!" <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">When a behavior that has been strongly reinforced in the past no longer gains a reinforcement, you might experience what's call an <i>extinction burst</i>. This is when the animal performs the behavior over and over again, in a burst of activity. <a href="http://www.shirleychong.com/keepers/archives/bursts.txt"><span style="color: windowtext;">Extinction bursts</span></a> are something for trainers to watch out for! <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">See some nice graphs of various schedules <a href="http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html"><span style="color: windowtext;">here</span></a> (but skip the table of "Outcomes of Conditioning" - it's misleading. This author uses "positive" to mean <i>both</i> "added" and "nice" - confusing!) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Recently <a href="http://www.behavior1.com/"><span style="color: windowtext;">Bob Bailey</span></a> has cautioned against needlessly using variable schedules. Most useful behaviors, he points out, will get some sort of reinforcement every time. You might not always <i>click and treat</i> your dog for sitting on cue, but you will always reward it with some recognition and praise ("Good dog!"). If there is some circumstances where you will be unable to deliver <i>any</i> reinforcement (during a long sequence of behaviors, or when the animal is out of contact), then you will need to build a buffer against extinction with a VSR. Otherwise, don't bother. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Cautions in using positive reinforcement <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">If the animal is acting out of fear, you may be rewarding the fear response. This can happen when you coddle a shy dog. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The timing must be good. If the animal did a great "stay" and you reward after the release, you are rewarding getting up. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The reward has to be sufficient to motivate a repetition. Mild praise won't be enough for some animals. Others require the richest of food rewards, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Reinforcements can become associated with the person giving them. If the animal realizes that he can't get any rewards without you present, he will not be motivated to act. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Animals can get sated with the reward you're offering when they've had enough, and it will no longer be motivating. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Reinforcers increase behavior. If you don't want your animal actively trying out new behaviors ("throwing behaviors at the trainer"), don't use positive reinforcement. Use a positive reinforcement to train an animal <i>to do</i> something. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><a name="Pneg"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative Punishment</span></b></a><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative punishment is reducing behavior by taking away Something Good. If the animal was enjoying or depending on Something Good she will work to avoid it getting taken away. They are less likely to repeat a behavior that results in the loss of a Good Thing. This type of consequence is a little harder to control. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The child has his crayons taken away for fighting with his sister. The window looking into the other monkey's enclosure is shut when the first monkey bites the trainer. "This car isn't getting any closer to Disneyland while you kids are fighting!" The dog is put on leash and taken from the park for coming to the owner when the owner called (this causes the unintentional result of the dog being less likely to respond to the recall). The teenager is grounded for misbehavior. The dolphin trainer walks away with the fish bucket when the dolphin acts aggressive. "I'm not talking to you after what you did!" Xena The Warrior Princess cuts off the air of an opponent who refuses to tell her what she wants. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Secondary Negative Punishers <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Trainers seldom go to the trouble of associating a particular cue with negative punishment. It's sometimes called a "delta", from S<sub>D</sub> or discriminative stimulus. Some dog owners make the mistake of calling their dogs in the park and then using the negative punishment of taking the dog away from the fun. "Fido, come!" then becomes a conditioned negative punisher. My mom conditioned a similar CP- as "Time to go!". <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><a name="Ppos"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive Punishment</span></b></a><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Positive punishment is something that is applied to reduce a behavior. The term "positive" often confuses people, because in common terms "positive" means something good, upbeat, happy, pleasant, rewarding. Remember, this is technical terminology we're using, though, so here "positive" means "added" or "started". Also keep in mind that in these terms, it is not the <i>animal</i> that is "punished" (treated badly to pay for some moral wrong), but the <i>behavior</i> that is "punished" (in other words, reduced). Positive punishment, when applied correctly, is the most effective way to stop unwanted behaviors. Its main flaw is that it does not teach specific alternative behaviors. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Our society seems to have a great fondness for positive punishment, in spite of all the problems associated with it (see below). The peeing on the rug (by a puppy) is punished with a swat of the newspaper. A dog's barking is punished with a startling squirt of citronella. The driver's speeding results in a ticket and a fine. The baby's hand is burned when she touches the hot stove. Walking straight through low doorways is punished with a bonk on the head. In all of these cases, the consequence (the positive punishment) reduces the behavior's future occurrences. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Secondary Positive Punishers <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Because a positive punisher, like other consequences, must follow a behavior immediately or be clearly connected to the behavior to be effective, a secondary positive punisher is very important. (This is especially true if the punisher is going to be something highly aversive or painful). Many dog trainers actively condition the word "No!" with some punisher, to form an association between the word and the consequence. The <a href="http://www.shirleychong.com/keepers/archives/CP.txt"><span style="color: windowtext;">conditioned punisher</span></a> (CP+) is an important part of training with Operant Conditioning. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Cautions in using Positive Punishment <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Behaviors are usually motivated by the expectation for some reward, and even with a punishment, the motivation of the reward is often still there. For example, a predator must face some considerable risk and pain in order to catch food. A wild dog must run over rough ground and through bushes, and face the hooves, claws, teeth, and/or horns of their prey animals. They might be painfully injured in their pursuit. In spite of this, they continue to pursue prey. In this case, the motivation and the reward far outweigh the punishments, even when they are dramatic. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The timing of a positive punishment must be exquisite. It must correspond exactly with the behavior for it to have an effect. (If a conditioned punisher is used, the CP+ must occur precisely with the behavior). If you catch your dog chewing on the furniture and you hit him when he comes to you, you are suppressing <i>coming to you</i>. The dog will <i>not </i>make the connection between the punishment and the chewing (no matter how much you point at the furniture). <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The aversive must be sufficient to stop the behavior in its tracks - and must be greater than the reward. The more experience the animal has with a rewarding consequence for the behavior, the greater the aversive has to be to stop or decrease the behavior. If you start with a small aversive (mild electric shock or a stern talking-to) and build up to a greater one (strong shock or full-on yelling), your trainee may become adjusted to the aversive and it will not have any greater effect. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Punishments may become associated with the person supplying them. The dog who was hit after chewing on the furniture may still chew on the furniture, but he certainly won't do it when you're around! <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Physical punishments can cause physical damage, and mental punishments can cause mental damage. You should only apply as much of an aversive as it takes to stop the behavior. If you find you have to apply a punishment more than three times for one behavior, without any decrease in the behavior, you are not "reducing the behavior", you are harassing (or abusing) the trainee. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Punishers <i>suppress</i> behaviors. Use positive punishment to train an animal <i>not</i> to do something. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><a name="Rneg"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative Reinforcement</span></b></a><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by ending or taking away Something Bad or aversive. By making the animal's circumstances better, you are rewarding it and increasing the likelihood that it will repeat the behavior that was occurring when you ended the Bad Thing. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In order to use negative reinforcement, the trainer must be able to control the Bad Thing that is being taken away. This often means that the trainer must also apply the Bad Thing. And applying a Bad Thing might reduce whatever behavior was going on when the Bad Thing was applied. And reducing a behavior by applying a Bad Thing is <i>positive punishment</i>. So when you start your Bad Thing that you're going to end as a negative reinforcer, you run the risk of punishing some other behavior. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">One of the major results of taking away Something Bad is often <i>relief</i>. So another way to think of negative reinforcement is that you are providing relief to the animal but of course, this makes it an example of <i>positive</i> reinforcement - you are providing Something Good - relief. Confusing? <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Examples <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The choke collar is loosened when the dog moves closer to the trainer. The ear pinch stops when the dog takes the dumbbell. The reins are loosened when the horse slows down. The car buzzer turns off when you put on your seatbelt. Dad continues driving towards Disneyland when the kids are quiet. "I'm not talking to you until you apologize!" The hostage is released when the ransom is paid. The torture is stopped when the victim confesses. "Why do I keep hitting my head against the wall? 'Cause it feels so good when I stop!" The baby stops crying when his mom feeds him. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Secondary Negative Reinforcers <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Trainers seldom go to the trouble of associating a particular cue with negative reinforcement. You can still go ahead and do it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Internal Reinforcers and Punishers</span></b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Trainers can not control all reinforcers and punishers, unfortunately. There are a number of environmental factors that are going to affect the animal's behavior that you have no control over, but which will still be a significant consequence for your trainee. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Some of these come from the animal's internal environment - their own reactions. Relief from stress, pain, or boredom are common reinforcers and some "self-reinforcing" behaviors are actually maintained because of this. Examples are a dog barking because it relieves boredom, or a person chewing on her fingers or smoking a cigarette because it relieves stress. Drivers speed because it is fun. <i>Guilt </i>is an internal punisher that some people experience. <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-49825004112397066302007-10-06T18:10:00.001+04:302007-10-06T18:16:15.704+04:30A Class with difference, A Class which makes difference<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61BWD6t4MzP3pw9jknP-h35bmT0vXXsANyrRVJO0yScRhWQN86OR9SNOWjxlCsCwWGxcAzl7N-lYaXZqMNfqiKmd2aIGJCkdI8dNERVFkl2Y41fAVFUHNFnW8ZR7Dq-38Uy7Uh_oBJWI/s1600-h/IMG_0948.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61BWD6t4MzP3pw9jknP-h35bmT0vXXsANyrRVJO0yScRhWQN86OR9SNOWjxlCsCwWGxcAzl7N-lYaXZqMNfqiKmd2aIGJCkdI8dNERVFkl2Y41fAVFUHNFnW8ZR7Dq-38Uy7Uh_oBJWI/s320/IMG_0948.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118218877974820786" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANGELS SINGING INVOCATION SONG<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrBkL_EDdjaTCuCMMp3mmac6bjcTvqJ8uRyVYV76vtwjYxi3_EHtM8ruirjQdn8AsQDWQdft1ueoCEYrk0D81DBaPsuahNIEGoYXv_DFRgdiUOgmP0ASQ8gAwttiUvzpfq3eIqMNY-SdQ/s1600-h/IMG_0950.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrBkL_EDdjaTCuCMMp3mmac6bjcTvqJ8uRyVYV76vtwjYxi3_EHtM8ruirjQdn8AsQDWQdft1ueoCEYrk0D81DBaPsuahNIEGoYXv_DFRgdiUOgmP0ASQ8gAwttiUvzpfq3eIqMNY-SdQ/s320/IMG_0950.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118218912334559170" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />SAME ANGELS HERE REPEATING<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvjyTdyeJRFhyphenhyphenWDA5cZ-U54jr6dtcj6GRfNMnBb1s-SptzqiEvDdO6QfbV7zI_rTQzD3ZeZMGKSbAO-h0JNh4hPUTDp3ee8gN3nyI4cl1wCMYjTwQCglURW7ZJWAHrAIWzEkEUwr7tAZE/s1600-h/IMG_2564.JPG"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvjyTdyeJRFhyphenhyphenWDA5cZ-U54jr6dtcj6GRfNMnBb1s-SptzqiEvDdO6QfbV7zI_rTQzD3ZeZMGKSbAO-h0JNh4hPUTDp3ee8gN3nyI4cl1wCMYjTwQCglURW7ZJWAHrAIWzEkEUwr7tAZE/s320/IMG_2564.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118218916629526482" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />THE ESSENCE OF THEATRE<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBmfuzDCk5nsy-_-t3ED7lzvc3ovx-ev8ex5zo8CDyV2MxmaGAufeVGAa2bDfNukUpKfRdoYPxm445LQkTnw5UpnfQFsqsx19_Q7YAqGucl2r3KEZZwkk5ytHVCvM5L8kW6olrlYidfbs/s1600-h/IMG_2554.JPG"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBmfuzDCk5nsy-_-t3ED7lzvc3ovx-ev8ex5zo8CDyV2MxmaGAufeVGAa2bDfNukUpKfRdoYPxm445LQkTnw5UpnfQFsqsx19_Q7YAqGucl2r3KEZZwkk5ytHVCvM5L8kW6olrlYidfbs/s320/IMG_2554.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118218955284232162" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ORIENTATION VISIT TO FEDINA WITH<br />FACULTY Ms. Sushma Murthy<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSLqPuTgiepU44rh3OMzhuDPf_w_bYxOWtnZjrnCdTTr5sPeb2COYWiqbf1AC8VII-WjN_pi7-5ymm4HexpSCDXHdgVhW2vRcA9Sa5AOZpwlyE3IwEKhV1RhhiuolNm3DaakbH0QiKkB4/s1600-h/IMG_2567.JPG"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSLqPuTgiepU44rh3OMzhuDPf_w_bYxOWtnZjrnCdTTr5sPeb2COYWiqbf1AC8VII-WjN_pi7-5ymm4HexpSCDXHdgVhW2vRcA9Sa5AOZpwlyE3IwEKhV1RhhiuolNm3DaakbH0QiKkB4/s320/IMG_2567.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118218981054035954" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />LOCAL BOYS AT CHRIST COLLEGEMSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1634188353291485744.post-30183960036156445762007-10-06T17:59:00.001+04:302007-10-06T18:20:00.764+04:30A Class with difference, A Class which makes difference<div style="text-align: justify;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAlQLgMtJjHnNCvt7BSid4NsU2nGW896MUPmUFrTXOGUOjdgxqRBoG8qRGZcylNIolTM7OoGOWvSV3ToVqAbzd-SOt2PJyicwNdYzcbu63WCDTRxj7UAv0ZMDqn9oZevCbDfpRVrUl3pI/s1600-h/IMG_0620.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAlQLgMtJjHnNCvt7BSid4NsU2nGW896MUPmUFrTXOGUOjdgxqRBoG8qRGZcylNIolTM7OoGOWvSV3ToVqAbzd-SOt2PJyicwNdYzcbu63WCDTRxj7UAv0ZMDqn9oZevCbDfpRVrUl3pI/s320/IMG_0620.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118216459908233058" border="0" /></a><span style="font-size:85%;"> MSW IN TRAINING WITH THEATRE IN EDUCATION </span> <br /></div><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNdnPrGEKSOoYfl7umfKGGIJVFokRk79byzqiN-P2sj-qp6sg1im6OrUOlG7z3whRofRVpG1EPeBPU1fsN1fksSpm2N1ubazu02-At2zIi2ReJsQRFlVShuEWx_ik2HDwaVchp8nWnb7I/s1600-h/IMG_0625.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNdnPrGEKSOoYfl7umfKGGIJVFokRk79byzqiN-P2sj-qp6sg1im6OrUOlG7z3whRofRVpG1EPeBPU1fsN1fksSpm2N1ubazu02-At2zIi2ReJsQRFlVShuEWx_ik2HDwaVchp8nWnb7I/s320/IMG_0625.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118216498562938738" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_XegoZE4uVwxJe_i5m3cD9_n_3KDXuTfpin4d-kbzSgvGBy1a-zOxRbKmrwx0F_z3VKbajxQM4g8NsamrNmxPdkmrrHzY13ZG0ouKR6ih0xTiLcp2HuVOgD6PgUower2PyRT36Amj1Vk/s1600-h/IMG_0636.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_XegoZE4uVwxJe_i5m3cD9_n_3KDXuTfpin4d-kbzSgvGBy1a-zOxRbKmrwx0F_z3VKbajxQM4g8NsamrNmxPdkmrrHzY13ZG0ouKR6ih0xTiLcp2HuVOgD6PgUower2PyRT36Amj1Vk/s320/IMG_0636.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118216507152873346" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGREHQif0sIRmFCVCkoC2DEfHB8JsFkF4D_MQ2DY7nzclkpSsZCOSc2ULRihyBwzOvNt4UaFGztIfuTWp0hZT9HX2TuYubTal10BInA5fx_7KwNtjUv4uAvGUAE5HdeEw1M-t0-mPte4w/s1600-h/IMG_0646.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGREHQif0sIRmFCVCkoC2DEfHB8JsFkF4D_MQ2DY7nzclkpSsZCOSc2ULRihyBwzOvNt4UaFGztIfuTWp0hZT9HX2TuYubTal10BInA5fx_7KwNtjUv4uAvGUAE5HdeEw1M-t0-mPte4w/s320/IMG_0646.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5118216532922677138" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br /> </span><span style="text-decoration: underline;">MSW'S IN CREATING<br />AWARENESS<br />ON SOCIAL ISSUES<br />AT CHRIST COLLEGE</span>MSW 2007-2009http://www.blogger.com/profile/05279078579800836075noreply@blogger.com0